7. Lesson Plans on Ancient Indus Valley Civilization: The Art and Architecture of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism

Radio Broadcast: Sacred Stone and Silent Wisdom

[Methodical Indian Music Played Softly in the background]Host: Folks, grab your seat and turn up that dial, because today we’re diving into something you probably didn’t learn in school—but absolutely should have. We’re heading into the caves, temples, towers, and sacred halls of South Asia. That’s right, we’re talking about religious architecture and art from Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism. And let me tell you—it’s not just fascinating; it’s mind-blowing.

Picture this: high atop India’s cliffs and across its plains, ancient builders carved entire temple complexes straight into living rock. No cranes, no bulldozers, no high-tech equipment. Just vision, devotion, and chisels. These people weren’t just building buildings—they were building cosmic blueprints. They were shaping their deepest beliefs into stone and color. What they left behind? A stunning visual legacy of spiritual imagination, unmatched anywhere in the world.

Let’s start with Hinduism. You walk into one of these temples, like the massive Brihadeshwara or the beautifully adorned Khajuraho temples, and BAM—you’re not just entering a building. You’re entering the universe. That’s right—the layout, the spires, the sanctums—they mirror cosmic order. Gods and goddesses in stone, dancing across temple walls, each sculpture telling a tale from the Mahabharata or Ramayana. The divine isn’t distant—it’s personal, colorful, alive! You’re surrounded by a pantheon of power, purpose, and poetry.

Now switch gears and step into a Buddhist sanctuary. You’ve got the stupa—a simple, domed monument you don’t enter, you walk around. Why? Because Buddhism is about the path, the journey, the walk toward enlightenment. Every carved gateway at Sanchi, every painted wall at Ajanta, tells a tale of compassion, sacrifice, and truth. The Buddha isn’t a king on a throne—he’s a guide, a symbol of quiet wisdom. No noise. No chaos. Just clarity.

And then—Jainism. Oh, the marble! You walk into the Dilwara Temples or Ranakpur, and you’d swear the air itself turns still. Everything—EVERYTHING—is symmetrical, polished, and pure. No wild gods or epic wars. Just serene figures—tirthankaras—sitting in perfect meditation, over and over again. Why? Because Jainism is about non-violence, about self-control, about tuning out the noise and getting laser-focused on truth. It’s marble math. It’s spiritual geometry. It’s peace in perfect form.

And let’s not forget the art. The murals! At Ajanta, you’ve got full-on cinematic storytelling painted right onto stone. At Badami, vibrant scenes of gods and epics exploding in color across the ceilings. These weren’t just pretty pictures—they were sacred texts, for the eyes instead of the ears. Every symbol—lotuses, Dharma wheels, Om, the Jain hand with a chakra—they’re visual shorthand for entire philosophies. They’re the emojis of the ancient world, but with meaning so deep it’ll make your head spin.

Now why does this matter? Why should we care?

Because this is history alive. This is humanity telling its spiritual story through architecture and art that has stood for over a thousand years. It teaches us that belief isn’t just what you say—it’s what you build, what you carve, what you leave behind. These temples and caves are lessons in compassion, discipline, and cosmic order. They’re messages from the past, and folks, they still speak.

So whether you’re a student, a teacher, a traveler, or just someone who wants to understand the world a little better—learn this. Learn how different faiths shaped their spaces, told their stories, and carved their ideals into eternity. Because when you understand the sacred art of others, you just might start to see the sacred in your own life a little more clearly.

That’s today’s deep dive, folks. Keep thinking, keep questioning—and never stop looking for the truth… even if it’s carved in stone.

[Methodical Indian Music Played Softly in the background]

Introduction to Sacred Spaces: What is a Temple, Stupa, or Cave Shrine?

Throughout history, humans have created sacred spaces to honor the divine, seek spiritual insight, and connect with the mysteries of the universe. In the Indian subcontinent, three major religious traditions—Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism—developed unique and powerful expressions of sacred architecture. While they differ in belief systems and rituals, all three share the common practice of creating carefully designed spaces where individuals can engage in worship, reflection, and spiritual discipline. These places are more than physical buildings; they are cosmic representations, spiritual tools, and cultural treasures.

In Hinduism, the temple is considered the earthly residence of the gods. In Buddhism, the stupa represents the enlightened mind of the Buddha and is a symbol of the path to Nirvana. In Jainism, cave shrines and temples are peaceful places for meditation and worship, often emphasizing simplicity and spiritual purity. Though different in form and function, each structure is rooted in the goal of spiritual elevation and the human quest for liberation.

The Hindu Temple: A House of the Divine

Hindu temples, or mandirs, are often described as the home of a deity on earth. The central part of the temple, called the garbhagriha (meaning “womb chamber”), houses the primary image or murti of the god or goddess. This inner sanctum is typically small, dark, and closed to the public except during rituals, symbolizing the mysterious and hidden nature of the divine. Surrounding the sanctum are various halls (mandapas) for public worship and ritual performances, and sometimes corridors for circumambulation (pradakshina), allowing devotees to walk around the deity in reverence.

The temple is designed according to ancient geometric guidelines known as vastu shastra, and every architectural element holds symbolic meaning. The towering spire above the sanctum, called the shikhara, represents a cosmic mountain—Mount Meru, believed to be the center of the universe. Worship in Hindu temples includes offering flowers, food, incense, and light to the deity, reciting prayers, and engaging in elaborate festivals that bring the community together. Temples are thus both spiritual and social centers, bridging heaven and earth through their sacred geometry and ceremonial life.

The Buddhist Stupa: A Symbol of Enlightenment

Unlike the Hindu temple, the Buddhist stupa is not a house for a god, but a symbolic monument. The stupa originated as a burial mound to house relics of the Buddha or other enlightened beings. Over time, it evolved into a sacred structure that represents the path to enlightenment and the body, speech, and mind of the Buddha himself. The stupa typically consists of a large, dome-shaped mound (symbolizing the universe), a square base, and a spire at the top called a yasti, which rises through a platform called the harmika. Surrounding the structure is often a circular path for circumambulation, allowing devotees to meditate by walking around it in a clockwise direction.

Each architectural part of the stupa corresponds to a stage in the Buddhist path. For example, the base represents mindfulness and moral discipline, while the spire symbolizes wisdom and the final attainment of Nirvana. Stupas are not spaces to go inside but are approached and walked around with devotion. They are often adorned with carvings and gateways (toranas) that tell stories from the Buddha’s life or previous lives. The act of visiting and circumambulating a stupa is itself considered a meritorious act, strengthening one’s connection to the Dharma and promoting spiritual growth.

Jain Rock-Cut Shrines and Temples: Paths to Liberation

In Jainism, sacred spaces often reflect a commitment to asceticism, purity, and non-violence. Jain cave shrines and temples are designed as serene places for meditation and the veneration of tirthankaras, the enlightened teachers who have crossed over the cycle of birth and death. The early Jains, like the Buddhists, created rock-cut sanctuaries in cliffs and hills, especially in western India. These cave temples, such as those at Udayagiri or Ellora, are carved directly from stone and often contain beautifully detailed statues of seated or standing tirthankaras in meditative poses.

Unlike Hindu temples which are lively with music and offerings, or stupas that are symbolic monuments, Jain shrines emphasize silence and introspection. Temples like those at Mount Abu or Shravanabelagola feature gleaming marble halls, intricate domes, and symmetrical design—all conveying spiritual balance and purity. Devotees offer prayers, fast, or engage in scriptural study, but the ultimate goal is personal liberation (moksha) through self-discipline and the renunciation of worldly attachments. The art and architecture of Jain spaces are expressions of their central values: simplicity, order, and the pursuit of inner peace.

The Purpose of Worship and Meditation in Sacred Architecture

Across all three religions, sacred architecture serves more than aesthetic or cultural functions—it is meant to guide the devotee on a journey inward. These spaces are built not just to house images or mark holy ground but to shape the experience of the worshipper. Every turn in a temple, every step around a stupa, every echo in a cave shrine is designed to remind the individual of the greater spiritual truths. In Hinduism, the goal is to honor and connect with the divine presence. In Buddhism, the architecture reminds the practitioner of the transitory nature of life and the path to enlightenment. In Jainism, the quiet, balanced structure reflects the inner stillness one seeks to attain.

The Story of the Stupa: Symbolism and Evolution

Origins in Ancient Burial Mounds

The story of the Buddhist stupa begins not with architecture, but with a mound of earth raised over the remains of the Buddha himself. After the Buddha’s passing—known as the parinirvana—his body was cremated, and his ashes were divided among different kingdoms. These ashes were enshrined in simple hemispherical burial mounds called chaityas or tumuli, a practice already common in ancient Indian cultures. These early burial mounds marked sacred ground, becoming focal points of reverence and spiritual reflection for followers of the new faith. Over time, these mounds became more than tombs; they evolved into profound symbols of Buddhist philosophy and cosmology.

The stupa thus began as a reliquary, a sacred structure built to protect and honor the physical remains of a revered teacher. However, the simplicity of these early forms gave way to deeper layers of meaning and more elaborate construction as Buddhism spread and matured. What was once a physical marker of loss became a metaphysical guidepost for enlightenment.

Structure and Symbolism of the Stupa

Every part of a stupa is infused with symbolism. At its core, the stupa represents the Buddha himself—his body, his teachings, and his path to spiritual awakening. The central structure is the anda, or dome, a rounded form resembling a womb or the universe. It is symbolic of the meditative mind and the infinite space of reality. The dome usually rests on a square base that represents the earth, grounding the spiritual symbolism in the physical world.

At the top of the dome sits a small square platform called the harmika. This element represents the realm of the gods or enlightened beings. Rising from the center of the harmika is the yasti, a vertical pole that pierces the sky and symbolizes the world axis, linking the earth with the heavens. The yasti often supports one or more circular disks known as chattras, or umbrellas, which signify different levels of spiritual attainment and protection.

Surrounding the stupa is the medhi, a circular terrace used for pradakshina, or circumambulation. Devotees walk clockwise around the stupa to show respect and absorb its spiritual power. At the four cardinal directions stand ornate gateways called toranas. These beautifully carved gateways serve as ceremonial entrances and are often filled with symbolic and narrative reliefs—scenes from the life of the Buddha, Jataka tales of his previous births, and allegorical figures representing virtues and teachings.

Together, the structure of the stupa reflects the journey of a Buddhist practitioner: from the grounded world of suffering and ignorance (the base) to the elevated state of enlightenment and liberation (the spire). Every curve, line, and elevation embodies the Dharma—the teachings of the Buddha—translating abstract spiritual truths into physical form.

From Modest Mounds to Monumental Monuments

As Buddhism expanded beyond India, the stupa evolved in form, size, and function. One of the earliest and most famous examples of a fully developed stupa is the Great Stupa at Sanchi in central India, constructed under the patronage of Emperor Ashoka in the 3rd century BC. Ashoka, after converting to Buddhism, commissioned the building of stupas across his vast empire as a way of spreading the Buddha’s message and uniting the people under a shared spiritual vision.

The Sanchi stupa is massive and majestic, featuring elaborately decorated toranas and a large circular base. Unlike earlier, simpler stupas, Sanchi introduced a higher level of artistic sophistication, with carvings that not only told religious stories but also served as didactic tools for the largely illiterate population. These narrative reliefs helped ordinary people visualize the Buddha’s compassion, sacrifices, and wisdom, making the faith accessible and vivid.

As Buddhist missionaries traveled across Asia, they brought the concept of the stupa with them. In Sri Lanka, the structure evolved into the dagoba, often with a more pointed spire. In Southeast Asia, particularly in Thailand and Myanmar, the stupa developed into the chedi or pagoda, soaring skyward with slender profiles. In the Himalayas, particularly in Tibet and Nepal, stupas took on the form of chortens, incorporating regional architectural styles and rich symbolism related to Vajrayana Buddhism.

These variations reflect the adaptability of the stupa’s form, which remained constant in meaning while taking on the artistic and cultural flavor of each region. Regardless of its outward design, the stupa continues to symbolize the Buddha’s presence and the path of awakening.

The Living Legacy of the Stupa

Even today, stupas are not merely historical relics but living centers of devotion. They draw pilgrims from across the world who come to meditate, offer prayers, and circle the stupa in silence. Some bring flowers or butter lamps; others spin prayer wheels or chant mantras as they walk. The physical act of circumambulation is more than ritual—it is a moving meditation, a physical expression of the inner path toward mindfulness and release from suffering.

Rock-Cut Wonders: Ajanta, Ellora, and Udayagiri Caves

The Art of Carving Sacred Space into Stone

In the heart of the Indian subcontinent, some of the most breathtaking religious monuments are not built from the ground up but instead carved deep into hillsides and cliffs. These are the rock-cut cave temples—monumental sanctuaries chiseled from living rock. Unlike traditional temples constructed with bricks or stone blocks, these sites were created by removing stone rather than assembling it. This unique architectural method reflects not only engineering brilliance but also deep spiritual devotion. Among the most famous and awe-inspiring of these sites are the Ajanta, Ellora, and Udayagiri caves. These complexes were shaped over centuries by the hands of monks, patrons, and artists who transformed mountainsides into places of prayer, teaching, and meditation.

These caves represent the shared heritage of India’s three great religious traditions—Buddhism, Hinduism, and Jainism. At Ajanta, the legacy is almost entirely Buddhist. Ellora hosts cave temples for all three religions side by side, making it a rare and powerful symbol of religious coexistence. Udayagiri, while smaller, is equally significant as one of the oldest examples of Hindu rock-cut architecture. Located in Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh, these sites offer a visual journey through the spiritual and artistic evolution of ancient India.

Ajanta Caves: A Painted World of Buddhist Devotion

The Ajanta Caves are nestled into a horseshoe-shaped cliff along the Waghora River in Maharashtra. Hidden for centuries and rediscovered in 1819 by a British officer on a tiger hunt, the caves date back as early as the 2nd century BC. Over time, more elaborate caves were added between the 5th and 6th centuries AD under the patronage of the Vakataka kings. There are 30 caves at Ajanta, including both chaitya halls for communal worship and vihara halls that served as monasteries and living quarters for monks.

What makes Ajanta especially remarkable is its wealth of mural paintings that still survive despite the passage of over a thousand years. These frescoes depict scenes from the Buddha’s life, Jataka tales (stories of his previous incarnations), and images of serene bodhisattvas surrounded by celestial beings and flowering vines. The craftsmanship, expression, and use of color in these murals reveal a refined tradition of storytelling through art. The Ajanta caves, carved directly into the basalt rock, required an immense effort—chiseling away stone to form pillars, arches, and altars, all while preparing smooth surfaces for painting. It was a spiritual labor of love, meant to elevate the mind of the worshipper and guide them toward compassion and enlightenment.

Ellora Caves: Harmony of Three Faiths

About 100 kilometers from Ajanta, the Ellora Caves present a different kind of wonder. Here, 34 caves are carved into a high volcanic ridge, stretching for over two kilometers. Unlike Ajanta, Ellora is a multi-religious site: the southernmost caves (Caves 1–12) are Buddhist, the middle section (Caves 13–29) is Hindu, and the northernmost caves (Caves 30–34) are Jain. These caves were excavated between the 6th and 10th centuries AD, representing the transition of patronage from Buddhist to Hindu and Jain dynasties in the Deccan region.

Among the Hindu caves, the most iconic is Cave 16—the Kailash Temple. This immense structure was not built but carved from top to bottom out of a single rock. Dedicated to Lord Shiva, the temple replicates a freestanding temple complex complete with shrines, statues, courtyards, and elaborate gateways. It is estimated that over 200,000 tons of rock were removed to create this single masterpiece. Its sheer scale and symmetry stand as a testament to ancient engineering and spiritual vision.

The Jain caves at Ellora, though smaller, exhibit fine details and a focus on symmetry and purity. They house depictions of tirthankaras (enlightened teachers) in calm meditation, accompanied by celestial symbols like lotuses and parasols. The Buddhist caves, especially Cave 10 (the Vishvakarma Cave), include large seated images of the Buddha and beautifully carved prayer halls, showing the gradual shift from symbolic stupas to anthropomorphic icons of the Enlightened One.

Ellora’s integration of three religions within one site is rare and powerful. It suggests a time when religious communities coexisted and perhaps even inspired each other, reflected in shared techniques and mutual respect for sacred space.

Udayagiri Caves: Hindu Beginnings in Rock-Cut Architecture

While Ajanta and Ellora are often in the spotlight, the Udayagiri Caves in Madhya Pradesh hold great significance, especially in the early development of Hindu rock-cut temples. These caves, numbering around twenty, date to the early 5th century AD and were built during the reign of the Gupta emperor Chandragupta II. They represent some of the earliest surviving examples of Hindu temple architecture carved into rock and show the emerging iconography of major deities like Vishnu and Shiva.

Perhaps the most famous sculpture at Udayagiri is the massive relief of Vishnu as Varaha, the boar-headed incarnation who rescues the Earth goddess from cosmic waters. This dynamic image, carved with dramatic force and divine symbolism, marks a milestone in Hindu religious art. Unlike Ajanta and Ellora, which later flourished with more developed iconography, Udayagiri provides a glimpse into the formative period when Hindu sacred imagery was taking shape.

The Udayagiri caves were not just religious centers but also served as imperial propaganda. Inscriptions connect the cave complexes to royal patrons, blending spiritual themes with messages of power and divine kingship. These caves represent the Gupta ideal of dharma—righteous rule in harmony with the divine.

The Artists, Monks, and Patrons Behind the Stone

Creating a rock-cut temple required not only skilled labor but also an immense degree of patience, vision, and funding. Monks and ascetics lived on site, supervising the work, praying, and meditating as the sanctuaries slowly took shape. Artists—sculptors, painters, and architects—worked in harsh conditions to bring life to stone. They followed traditional guidelines but infused their work with creativity and devotion. Wealthy patrons, including kings, nobles, and merchants, financed the projects as acts of merit, believing their support would bring spiritual rewards in this life and the next.

These were not simple construction projects. Carving into living rock meant that every cut had to be precise, with no room for error. The design had to be visualized in reverse, from ceiling to floor, exterior to interior. The effort was staggering. Yet, despite the difficulty, the results were enduring. These temples, sheltered by cliffs and mountains, have withstood centuries of weather, conflict, and time.

Legacy of the Rock-Cut Caves

Ajanta, Ellora, and Udayagiri are more than archaeological sites; they are living documents of artistic and spiritual expression. They speak of a time when carving a cave was not just about making a shelter, but about shaping a sacred cosmos. Every pillar, painting, and statue was created to teach, to inspire, and to connect humans with the divine.

Hindu Temples: Towers, Mandapas, and Inner Sanctums

Sacred Spaces that Mirror the Cosmos

Hindu temples are more than architectural marvels—they are living embodiments of cosmic order and divine presence. Built with intricate designs and profound symbolism, these sacred structures serve not only as places of worship but as bridges between the human world and the realm of the gods. The core idea behind Hindu temple architecture is that the temple is not just a building but a divine organism, a reflection of the universe in miniature. Every part of the temple—its walls, towers, halls, and sanctums—is imbued with spiritual meaning. From the massive pyramidal towers that rise into the sky to the small, dark inner sanctum that houses the deity, every element plays a role in guiding the worshipper from the outer world of illusion toward the inner truth of divine consciousness.

Temples across India vary in style depending on region and era, but they all share a common spiritual grammar. Whether in the soaring towers of Tamil Nadu’s Brihadeshwara Temple or the intricately carved walls of the Khajuraho complex in Madhya Pradesh, the layout and ornamentation of Hindu temples follow principles that are both artistic and metaphysical. These principles are laid out in ancient texts like the Shilpa Shastras and Vastu Shastra, which dictate how temples should be aligned, proportioned, and adorned to align with cosmic forces and sacred geometry.

The Shikhara: Towering Toward the Divine

The most visually striking feature of a Hindu temple is often its towering superstructure, known as the shikhara in northern India and the vimana in the south. This tower rises directly above the temple’s most sacred space, the garbhagriha, and symbolizes Mount Meru, the mythical mountain considered the axis of the universe in Hindu cosmology. Just as Mount Meru connects the earthly realm to the heavens, the shikhara links the worshipper’s physical presence to the divine plane.

Northern-style shikharas are typically curvilinear or beehive-shaped, tapering gracefully toward a rounded finial. Southern-style vimanas, like those seen at the Brihadeshwara Temple, are more pyramidal and tiered, often decorated with smaller replicas of themselves to create a rhythmic visual ascent. Atop the shikhara is the kalasha, a pot-like structure symbolizing abundance and immortality. The vertical emphasis of these towers draws the devotee’s gaze upward, lifting the mind and spirit toward transcendence.

The height and scale of the shikhara are not merely grand architectural gestures—they are metaphysical symbols. The tower represents the vertical journey of the soul, rising from the mundane to the sacred, from matter to spirit. As such, entering a temple and approaching its soaring tower is a ritual journey that mirrors the inward path of meditation and self-realization.

The Mandapa: Halls of Gathering and Transition

Before reaching the garbhagriha, worshippers pass through a series of pillared halls called mandapas. These open or enclosed halls serve both functional and symbolic roles. Architecturally, they provide space for congregational worship, chanting, dancing, music, and ritual processions. Spiritually, they represent stages in the journey toward enlightenment, transitioning the devotee from the external world into the inner sanctum of divine presence.

Mandapas are often richly adorned with sculptures, carvings, and ceiling motifs that illustrate myths, epic tales, and the lives of gods and saints. At Khajuraho, for example, the mandapas are filled with sensual carvings and dynamic storytelling scenes from the Ramayana, Mahabharata, and Puranas. These artistic expressions serve not only to beautify the space but to teach, inspire, and remind the worshipper of the multifaceted nature of the divine and the moral teachings embedded in Hindu thought.

In larger temples, multiple mandapas may appear in succession, each slightly more elevated and enclosed, leading the devotee gradually inward. The ceilings are often low near the outer mandapas and grow higher as one nears the sanctum, symbolizing the elevation of consciousness as one approaches divine truth.

The Garbhagriha: Womb of the Divine

At the heart of every Hindu temple lies the garbhagriha, or “womb chamber.” This small, dark, and unadorned room houses the principal deity of the temple in the form of a murti—an image or idol that is ritually consecrated to embody divine energy. It is the most sacred part of the temple, and traditionally only the priests are permitted to enter. Devotees gather outside to offer prayers, flowers, incense, and light, and to receive darshan, or sacred sight, of the deity.

The garbhagriha is intentionally designed to be simple and silent, in contrast to the ornate mandapas and outer walls. This starkness focuses the mind inward and strips away distractions. The chamber is often windowless, lit only by oil lamps, emphasizing the inner light of spiritual awakening. In both architectural and spiritual terms, it is the source—the place where the divine manifests and where the devotee comes face to face with the sacred presence.

Positioned precisely beneath the shikhara, the garbhagriha anchors the entire temple, both physically and cosmically. It represents the center of the universe and the innermost self (atman), aligning the individual soul with the supreme reality (Brahman). Entering the temple, moving through the mandapas, and finally reaching the garbhagriha is akin to an inward pilgrimage, a spiritual journey from the world of illusion (maya) to the ultimate truth.

Cosmic Design: Temples as Models of the Universe

Hindu temples are not randomly constructed buildings—they are cosmograms, carefully mapped representations of the universe. According to traditional Vastu Shastra, the layout of a temple mirrors the body of the cosmic being (Purusha), with the garbhagriha at the head and other parts of the temple corresponding to arms, legs, and torso. The temple’s alignment with cardinal directions and its use of sacred proportions reflect a belief in the interconnectedness of all things.

At Brihadeshwara Temple in Thanjavur, built in the 11th century by the Chola king Raja Raja I, the entire structure is an expression of divine order and royal power. The temple's grand scale, symmetrical layout, and towering vimana emphasize the cosmic presence of Shiva and the king’s role as his earthly representative. The temple was not only a place of worship but a center of culture, administration, and learning.

In contrast, the temples at Khajuraho, built by the Chandela dynasty between the 9th and 11th centuries, are known for their exquisite sculptures that cover nearly every surface. These temples portray a universe teeming with divine and human figures in dynamic motion—dancing gods, celestial musicians, mythical creatures, and lovers. The architecture expresses the unity of the sensual and the spiritual, the earthly and the eternal.

Living Temples and Enduring Legacy

Today, Hindu temples continue to function as centers of religious life, social gatherings, festivals, and spiritual education. Many temples, ancient and modern, still follow traditional architectural guidelines and ritual practices. Worshippers attend daily ceremonies, participate in elaborate processions, and experience the rhythms of sacred time through temple calendars and festivals.

Jain Temples: Symmetry, Purity, and Marble Masterpieces

A Spiritual Vision Carved in Stone

Jain temples are among the most visually stunning and spiritually profound expressions of religious architecture in India. Unlike the often vibrant and mythologically busy temples of Hinduism or the monumental symbolism of Buddhist stupas, Jain temples present a calm, ordered aesthetic that mirrors the Jain pursuit of inner purity, discipline, and liberation. Their architectural language is marked by exacting symmetry, unblemished materials—especially white marble—and intricate carvings that celebrate both devotion and restraint. The temples are not just places of worship but deliberate, sacred designs that embody the central Jain principles of non-violence (ahimsa), asceticism, and detachment from the material world.

In Jainism, the ultimate goal is to achieve moksha, or liberation from the cycle of birth and rebirth. This goal is achieved not through ritual sacrifices or ecstatic devotion, but through a life of disciplined ethical conduct, meditation, and the shedding of all karmic bonds. The serene and symmetrical design of Jain temples supports this inner journey. Their quiet elegance, balanced layout, and smooth marble interiors create a space that reflects the ideal state of the soul—unattached, luminous, and serene. Nowhere is this more beautifully realized than in the famed marble temples of Dilwara on Mt. Abu and the Ranakpur temple complex in Rajasthan.

Purity and Marble: The Material of Spiritual Clarity

Marble holds special significance in Jain architecture because of its luminous whiteness, durability, and the clarity it brings to carved detail. The use of white or pale-colored marble in Jain temples is not simply for aesthetic pleasure. It symbolizes purity of thought, speech, and action—three pillars of Jain ethical living. The very color of the stone serves as a visual reminder of the state the soul must attain: flawless, bright, and untainted by worldly desires.

Crafted to near perfection, Jain temples exhibit a masterful use of marble in columns, domes, walls, ceilings, and floors. This marble is often polished to a smooth finish, allowing natural light to reflect and illuminate the temple from within. Unlike darker or more heavily adorned temples, Jain temples intentionally keep their interiors free of clutter, emphasizing spiritual focus and internal contemplation.

The carvings, though numerous, do not distract; instead, they guide the mind through their symmetry and order. The visual silence of the white marble surfaces allows the few select images—particularly the statues of the tirthankaras, the enlightened teachers of Jainism—to shine as the focal points of reverence and meditation. These idols, almost always depicted in meditative poses, often sit in niches or sanctums surrounded by delicately carved floral and geometric motifs that represent spiritual harmony.

Dilwara Temples: Marble Devotion on Mount Abu

The Dilwara Temples, nestled in the cool hills of Mount Abu in Rajasthan, are perhaps the most renowned example of Jain marble architecture. Built between the 11th and 13th centuries AD by wealthy Jain patrons and craftsmen, these temples are celebrated for their astonishing intricacy and elegance. There are five main temples in the complex, each dedicated to different tirthankaras, but two in particular—the Vimal Vasahi and the Luna Vasahi—stand out for their architectural achievement.

The Vimal Vasahi Temple, built in 1031 AD, is dedicated to Adinatha, the first tirthankara. It consists of a central sanctum surrounded by pillared halls and open courtyards. The craftsmanship in this temple is breathtaking—every column, dome, and wall surface is covered in carvings, yet the overall effect is one of quiet serenity. The ceilings feature elaborate mandala-like designs, with concentric rings of sculpted figures, lotuses, and symbols that draw the eyes inward, much like the Jain spiritual path itself.

The Luna Vasahi Temple, built in the 13th century, is equally splendid. Constructed in honor of Neminatha, the 22nd tirthankara, this temple features an extraordinary central dome supported by intricately carved pillars, each with unique motifs and figures. The sense of balance and grace in the Luna Vasahi Temple is a physical manifestation of Jain beliefs—every inch of the temple speaks to devotion, perfection, and inner discipline. These temples are also a testament to the collaborative spirit of Jain religious art, involving hundreds of artisans over several decades, all working toward a common spiritual goal.

Ranakpur Temple: Harmony in Stone

Another jewel in Jain architecture is the Ranakpur Temple, located in a secluded valley in the Aravalli Hills of Rajasthan. Constructed in the 15th century under the patronage of a Jain businessman named Dharna Shah, and supported by the Rana of Mewar, this temple is dedicated to Adinatha and is one of the largest and most elaborate Jain temples in India.

Ranakpur is most famous for its forest of 1,444 marble columns, each uniquely carved, yet arranged in perfect symmetry. The temple’s sprawling layout and geometric precision create a visual experience that evokes stillness and grandeur. The multiple mandapas (pillared halls), the carefully aligned domes, and the intricately adorned ceilings all draw the visitor into a meditative state. The temple’s architects achieved a rare synthesis of complexity and clarity, where movement through the temple mimics the mental process of shedding distractions and focusing on the eternal.

The central sanctum contains a large image of Adinatha with four faces, each facing a cardinal direction, symbolizing his universal presence and spiritual watchfulness. Throughout the temple, stone lattice screens filter sunlight, creating patterns of light and shadow that change through the day—reminding worshippers of the impermanence of all things. The silence within the temple, combined with its radiant symmetry, makes Ranakpur a physical embodiment of the Jain worldview—disciplined, balanced, and serene.

The Role of Symmetry and Stillness in Jain Design

Symmetry in Jain temples is more than just an aesthetic principle—it is a moral and spiritual concept. In Jain thought, the universe is governed by order, and the soul attains liberation by aligning with that order through disciplined conduct and inner clarity. Architectural symmetry represents cosmic harmony and spiritual discipline. The repetitive patterns, balanced layouts, and harmonious proportions in Jain temples mirror the ideal state of the liberated soul—steady, unaffected by passions, and in perfect equilibrium.

This devotion to symmetry is especially visible in the layout of mandapas, the placement of sanctums, and the mathematical precision of columns and domes. Nothing is arbitrary; every stone, every angle, every carving contributes to a greater whole. For the Jain devotee, entering such a temple is like entering a visual mantra—a sacred space that trains the mind toward focus, detachment, and peace.

Living Testimonies of Non-Violence and Enlightenment

Jain temples, especially those like Dilwara and Ranakpur, are not only monuments of religious devotion but also architectural declarations of ahimsa—the principle of non-harm. Their very existence was made possible by wealthy patrons who believed that sponsoring the creation of such temples would accumulate great spiritual merit. Their construction employed thousands of artisans, but always under the guiding principle of non-violence and purity, often with strict codes about who could enter, what materials could be used, and how the site must be maintained.

Carvings and Stories in Stone

Long before printing presses or widespread literacy, sacred stories in South Asia were not just written—they were carved into stone. Across the temples of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism, walls became pages, columns became verses, and stone was transformed into visual scripture. Sculptors, deeply immersed in religious tradition and artistic discipline, created detailed narrative panels and deity sculptures that communicated spiritual teachings to devotees of every social class. These carvings were not mere decoration. They were sacred tools of instruction, imagination, and devotion—each one telling a story, each one guiding the viewer toward ethical reflection, spiritual growth, or a sense of awe at the divine.

In a time when most people could not read, these sculptural panels played a vital role in religious life. As pilgrims walked through temple corridors, they were visually introduced to the lives of gods, sages, enlightened beings, and epic heroes. These stories were familiar but came alive through vivid detail and carefully choreographed scenes. Each figure, gesture, and symbol was chosen not only for artistic beauty but for what it communicated: about virtue, dharma, karma, renunciation, or salvation. Whether drawn from the Mahabharata, the life of the Buddha, or the stories of Jain tirthankaras, the carvings were visual sermons—accessible, unforgettable, and deeply sacred.

Gods in Motion: Hindu Deity Sculptures and Epics

In Hindu temples, narrative art is most famously seen in the form of deity sculptures and scenes from epics like the Ramayana and Mahabharata. Rather than static representations, these deities are shown in dynamic postures—dancing, fighting, blessing, or meditating. They embody not only physical beauty but cosmic forces and philosophical ideas. One of the most iconic examples is the figure of Shiva as Nataraja, the cosmic dancer whose rhythmic movement sustains the universe while also symbolizing destruction and renewal. His dance is captured in bronze and stone, with multiple arms, a ring of flames, and a serene expression that conveys both intensity and stillness.

Temples like those at Khajuraho, Hampi, and Belur are covered in thousands of detailed panels that narrate the exploits of gods and heroes. In one corner, Rama aims his bow in a battle against Ravana. In another, Arjuna listens to Krishna’s counsel in the Bhagavad Gita. Elsewhere, one might see Lakshmi rising from a lotus, Vishnu reclining on the cosmic serpent Ananta, or Durga triumphing over the buffalo demon Mahishasura. Each of these carvings offers not only beauty but insight into core ideas of Hindu belief—divine protection, righteous warfare, the balance of cosmic forces, and the intimate relationship between the gods and the devotee.

The walls often progress in sequences, guiding the viewer through a spiritual journey. In some temples, such as those at Chidambaram or Madurai, sculptural programs may even follow calendrical or ritual logic, showing scenes appropriate for certain festivals or liturgical events. The viewer, walking in a clockwise fashion, participates in a sacred narrative that mirrors both myth and ritual, memory and presence.

The Buddha in Stone: Teaching through Image

In Buddhist art, the emphasis is not just on the figure of the Buddha himself but also on his previous lives (Jataka tales), key moments of his enlightenment, and the lives of bodhisattvas who delay their own final liberation to help others. These stories, often carved in circular panels or friezes, served as moral lessons, encouraging virtues like compassion, non-violence, and self-sacrifice.

At sites like Sanchi, Bharhut, and Amaravati, early Buddhist art avoided direct images of the Buddha, using symbols like the bodhi tree, dharma wheel, or empty throne to represent his presence. The focus was on narrative—how a prince gave away his kingdom to the poor, how a monkey offered fruit to a hungry monk, how the Buddha tamed a wild elephant with kindness. These scenes, often populated by dozens of expressive figures, animals, and celestial beings, wrap around stupas and gateways, immersing the viewer in an unfolding visual Dharma.

Later, in caves like Ajanta and Ellora, the Buddha begins to appear in human form—seated in lotus posture, hands in symbolic mudras, eyes half-closed in meditative peace. Surrounding him are painted and carved stories from his life: his birth in Lumbini, his great departure from the palace, his enlightenment under the bodhi tree, and his first sermon at Sarnath. The walls are alive with activity—monks listening, kings kneeling, spirits hovering above—each figure carved with delicate attention to gesture and emotion.

These carvings were not only devotional but educational. For monks, they served as aids to meditation and memory. For lay visitors, they offered visual access to complex teachings and inspired faith in the Buddha’s path. The artistry served the Dharma, helping to make abstract truths concrete and personal.

The Jain Approach: Tirthankaras and Ideal Conduct

Jain temple carvings are distinct in their clarity, serenity, and repetition. Rather than dramatic action scenes, Jain sculpture focuses on the peaceful, meditative figures of the tirthankaras, the spiritual teachers who have overcome worldly bonds and attained liberation. Each tirthankara is shown seated or standing in a perfect posture of meditation, eyes open but unfocused, suggesting inner stillness and awareness.

Though the figures may appear similar, each tirthankara is identified by subtle symbols—lotus, lion, deer, or parasol—and surrounded by celestial attendants or auspicious emblems. The repetition of form reinforces the Jain value of equanimity and the sameness of all liberated souls. At temples like Dilwara and Ranakpur, these figures are placed within elaborate domes, niches, and corridors, each crafted with geometric precision and spiritual intent.

In addition to these central images, Jain temple walls often include smaller panels depicting episodes from the lives of the tirthankaras: renouncing wealth, meditating through storms, resisting temptation, or delivering teachings. These stories were not designed to entertain but to instruct—to model the path of right conduct (samyak charitra) and inspire personal discipline. While less dramatic than the epics of Hinduism or the parables of Buddhism, Jain carvings have a quiet power that reflects the heart of the tradition: peaceful, clear, and unwavering.

The Sculptor as Storyteller and Sage

Creating these narrative carvings required not only technical skill but deep spiritual understanding. Sculptors often memorized sacred texts, followed iconographic guidelines, and worked in close consultation with religious teachers and patrons. The stories they carved were not imagined but inherited—passed down through scripture, performance, and oral tradition. The goal was not originality but clarity and reverence, presenting timeless truths in forms that would endure.

Each carving was chiseled by hand, often in hard stone, with incredible patience and attention to proportion, detail, and gesture. Hands might hold lotus flowers or weapons; facial expressions might show serenity, compassion, or fierce protection. Even the placement of carvings mattered: gods facing east, demons toward the south, and narrative sequences flowing with the path of the sun.

Through these visual stories, temples became sacred theaters of memory and meaning. Worshippers learned not only who the gods were, but what they did and why it mattered. They saw their own struggles reflected in the tales of noble heroes, selfless sages, or celestial beings. In this way, carvings were not passive decoration, but active agents in spiritual education and transformation.

Religious Symbols in Art: The Lotus, Dharma Wheel, Om, and Jain Hand

Religious art in Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism is rich with symbols that communicate spiritual ideas through simple yet powerful imagery. These symbols are found carved into temple walls, painted in manuscripts, embedded in sculptures, or placed as sacred emblems in ritual spaces. For students and viewers unfamiliar with their meanings, these shapes might seem decorative. But to the faithful, each symbol carries layers of theological and philosophical meaning. Learning to “read” these symbols is like learning a new language—a visual script that speaks of purity, wisdom, compassion, and spiritual liberation. Understanding these symbols allows us not only to appreciate the artistic beauty of temples and shrines, but also to gain insight into the deeply held beliefs of the people who created and venerated them.

Among the most widely used and significant religious symbols in South Asian traditions are the lotus flower, the wheel of Dharma, the syllable Om, the Jain hand with a chakra, and the swastika. Each of these is used in distinct but overlapping ways in Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism, offering both shared themes and unique religious perspectives. These symbols do not merely decorate—they instruct, inspire, and remind. They appear again and again in sacred art, not by accident, but by purpose—serving as visual cues that call the viewer back to deeper truths.

The Lotus Flower: Purity and Spiritual Awakening

The lotus flower is one of the most universal symbols across Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism. Its beauty lies not only in its physical form—elegant petals floating above water—but in the metaphor it represents. The lotus grows in muddy water, yet rises above the mire, opening clean and untouched by the dirt below. This natural process reflects the spiritual journey of the soul, which, despite being born into a world of suffering and impurity, can grow toward enlightenment and remain undefiled.

In Hindu art, the lotus is associated with many deities. Vishnu is often shown standing or reclining on a lotus, symbolizing his divine origin and support of cosmic order. Lakshmi, goddess of wealth and purity, is depicted sitting on a fully bloomed lotus, with additional lotuses in her hands or surrounding her. Brahma, the creator god, is said to have been born from a lotus that emerged from Vishnu’s navel, representing the unfolding of the universe.

In Buddhism, the lotus represents the purity of the Buddha’s mind and the stages of enlightenment. A closed lotus may symbolize potential; a partially open one, progress; and a fully opened flower, complete awakening. The Buddha is often shown seated in the lotus position—a stable meditative pose—on a lotus throne, suggesting spiritual transcendence. In Jainism, the lotus also appears as a pedestal for tirthankaras, reinforcing the idea that liberation is possible even in a world full of challenges.

The Dharma Wheel: Turning Toward Truth

The wheel of Dharma, or dharmachakra, is most closely associated with Buddhism, where it symbolizes the Buddha’s teaching and the path to enlightenment. Its spokes represent different elements of the Noble Eightfold Path—right view, right intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration. Just as a wheel turns and guides a chariot forward, the Dharma guides the mind forward on the path of spiritual growth.

The wheel’s circular shape also symbolizes the cyclical nature of existence—birth, death, and rebirth—and the potential to break free from this cycle through the realization of truth. The earliest known representations of the Dharma Wheel date back to the time of Emperor Ashoka in the 3rd century BC, who erected stone pillars with carved wheels to signify his support for Buddhism. The wheel continues to appear in modern Buddhist temples and national symbols, including the flag of India, which features a blue Ashokan wheel with 24 spokes.

In Hinduism, a similar wheel is associated with the god Vishnu, whose Sudarshana Chakra is a weapon of righteousness, used to destroy evil and restore cosmic balance. While not identical to the Buddhist Dharma Wheel, it carries a parallel idea—that divine truth sets the world in motion and maintains order. In Jain art, the wheel may also appear in cosmological diagrams, reflecting the structure of time and space within Jain philosophy.

The Sacred Sound Om: The Essence of the Universe

Om (or Aum) is one of the most profound and widely used symbols in Hinduism. It is both a written sign and a spoken sound—a mantra that encapsulates the essence of ultimate reality. The syllable itself is composed of three phonetic elements: A, U, and M, which represent the waking state, the dream state, and the deep sleep state. Together, they encompass the total experience of consciousness. The silence that follows the sound symbolizes the state beyond all experience—pure awareness or Brahman.

Om is visually represented in a graceful, flowing script that is instantly recognizable in Hindu art, temple iconography, and ritual spaces. It is often inscribed at the beginning of texts and mantras, chanted in meditation, and displayed at the entrances of sacred sites. For many Hindus, Om is the vibration from which the universe emerged—a sound that resonates with the heartbeat of creation.

In Buddhism, Om is the first syllable of the famous mantra “Om Mani Padme Hum,” associated with the bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara, the embodiment of compassion. In this context, Om still carries the sense of sacred origin, although its full interpretation is framed within Buddhist cosmology. In Jainism, while Om is not as central, variations of sacred sounds are used in mantras and prayers, recognizing the spiritual potency of vibration and focused sound.

The Jain Hand and Chakra: Non-Violence and Self-Mastery

One of the most distinctive symbols in Jain art is the raised hand with a wheel in its palm. This symbol conveys the principle of ahimsa, or non-violence, which is the foundation of Jain ethics. The hand itself signifies a gesture of halt—stop before you harm any living being. The wheel, or chakra, in the palm is the dharmachakra, representing the path of righteousness and self-discipline.

Inside the wheel is often the word “Ahimsa” written in ancient script, reminding practitioners of their vow to avoid harm not only through physical actions but also through speech and thought. The Jain hand symbol is both a call for peace and a declaration of moral responsibility. It teaches that every soul is capable of liberation if it practices restraint, compassion, and wisdom.

This symbol appears on Jain temples, educational institutions, and literature. It is often placed alongside the tirthankara images, reinforcing the idea that the path to liberation begins with ethical discipline. The combination of the open hand and the wheel reminds practitioners that spiritual progress is not a passive journey but an active engagement with moral truth.

The Swastika: Ancient Symbol of Spiritual Order

The swastika is one of the most ancient and complex symbols in Indian religious traditions. Though its appropriation in the 20th century distorted its meaning in the Western world, in South Asia it remains a sacred emblem of balance, auspiciousness, and cosmic harmony. The word “swastika” comes from the Sanskrit svasti, meaning “well-being” or “good fortune.” It has been used in Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism for millennia.

In Hinduism, the swastika is associated with the god Ganesha and is often drawn on thresholds, altars, and during festivals to invite blessings. Its four arms represent the four Vedas, the four goals of life (dharma, artha, kama, moksha), or the four directions of space. It is a symbol of the stable and orderly cosmos maintained by divine forces.

In Jainism, the swastika holds special significance. It represents the four states of existence: heavenly beings, human beings, animal beings, and hellish beings. It serves as a reminder that the soul may be born into any of these states depending on its karma, and only through right conduct can it ascend toward liberation. In Jain temples, the swastika is often used in floor diagrams and sacred diagrams (yantras) that guide rituals and meditation.

In Buddhism, especially in East Asian traditions, the swastika appears as a symbol of the Buddha’s heart or mind. It is often placed on the chest or palms of Buddha statues and represents eternity, the Dharma, and universal harmony. It is viewed not as a political symbol, but as a spiritual mark of truth and balance.

Murals and Cave Paintings: Ajanta and Beyond

Among the wonders of ancient Indian religious art, the murals and cave paintings found in places like Ajanta and Badami hold a special place. Unlike sculptures and architectural carvings, which shape sacred space in three dimensions, murals bring the spiritual world to life in vivid color, line, and form. These paintings are not mere decoration; they are theological expressions, visual teachings, and emotional narratives meant to stir the heart and guide the soul. Found on temple ceilings, monastery walls, and inner sanctums, they serve as portals into divine stories, ethical teachings, and mythic landscapes.

The art of mural painting in India reached one of its most sublime forms in the Buddhist caves at Ajanta, Maharashtra, between the 2nd century BC and the 6th century AD. In the Deccan region, the Hindu cave temples of Badami in Karnataka, dating to the 6th and 7th centuries AD, also contain significant examples of painted devotional art. These cave complexes, carved directly into hillsides and cliffs, were transformed into sacred environments not just by their architecture, but by the layers of paint that once covered nearly every surface. Though time, weather, and human activity have damaged many of these masterpieces, what remains offers a profound glimpse into the religious, aesthetic, and emotional imagination of the ancient world.

Ajanta: A Painted World of the Buddha’s Path

The Ajanta caves are perhaps the most famous site of Indian mural painting. Carved into a horseshoe-shaped cliff above the Waghora River in Maharashtra, this complex consists of 30 caves used primarily by Buddhist monks for worship and monastic life. The murals here are among the earliest surviving examples of Indian painting, and they demonstrate a remarkable blend of artistic refinement, narrative clarity, and spiritual intensity.

The paintings at Ajanta focus largely on the life of the Buddha and the Jataka tales, which recount his previous births in both human and animal forms. These stories, drawn from oral and literary tradition, are filled with moral lessons about compassion, generosity, and wisdom. The artists at Ajanta brought these tales to life with a masterful sense of movement, expression, and detail. In one mural, a prince renounces his throne to become an ascetic. In another, an elephant offers its life to save a traveler. These are not static depictions; they pulse with emotion and dramatic tension, as if the figures could speak their lessons aloud.

Color played a critical role in the storytelling. Earth tones such as ochre, red, brown, and green dominate, with occasional use of lapis lazuli and gold for highlights. The colors were made from natural materials—minerals, plants, and even powdered gems—and were applied using fine brushes made of animal hair. The technique of painting on dry plaster (tempera) rather than wet (fresco) allowed for greater detail but made the paintings vulnerable to humidity over time. Despite this, the murals still retain a vibrant sense of life.

Emotion is central to Ajanta’s artistic success. Figures are not merely symbolic—they are psychologically real. The tilted heads, gentle smiles, lowered eyes, and fluid hand gestures convey tenderness, sorrow, reverence, and joy. These emotional cues guide the viewer’s spiritual reflection. The layout of scenes is often non-linear, allowing multiple moments from a story to unfold in a single composition. The viewer, moving through the dimly lit cave, discovers these episodes gradually, as if participating in the spiritual journey himself.

Badami: Hindu Narratives in Pigment and Stone

While Ajanta is predominantly Buddhist, the Badami cave temples in Karnataka offer a glimpse into early Hindu mural traditions. Built under the patronage of the Chalukya kings in the 6th and 7th centuries AD, the Badami caves are carved into red sandstone cliffs and dedicated to Hindu deities like Shiva and Vishnu. Though less extensive than the Ajanta murals, the paintings at Badami reveal a similar intention: to make the cave a living sanctuary filled with divine presence.

In Cave 3 of Badami, traces of murals depict Vishnu seated on the serpent Ananta, floating on the cosmic ocean. Other paintings may have included scenes from the Ramayana or Mahabharata, although much of this artwork has faded or been damaged. Still, the surviving fragments hint at a vibrant palette and a confident narrative style. Figures were drawn with expressive faces, elaborate jewelry, and flowing garments, echoing the sculptural traditions visible throughout the cave’s architecture.

The emotional content in these paintings is deeply devotional. Deities are not only majestic but also approachable, often surrounded by worshippers, sages, and celestial beings who mirror the human longing for divine connection. The intimacy of these images, painted on the curved ceilings and columns, transforms the cave into a visual cosmos—a universe in miniature where the gods dwell among mortals.

Themes and Techniques: Shared Sacred Language

Despite differences in religious context, the murals at Ajanta and Badami share many visual conventions. Artists used continuous narrative techniques—where multiple moments in a story are depicted within a single visual space—to create layered, immersive storytelling. Perspective was achieved not through vanishing points, but through overlapping forms, relative size, and directional gazes. Figures closer to the viewer were larger and more detailed; distant ones were smaller or partially hidden, creating a sense of depth without mathematical precision.

The placement of murals within the cave was also symbolic. Sacred stories were painted near shrines, entrances, or ceilings where they would catch the eye of both monks and pilgrims. Some walls were reserved for formal teachings, while others depicted popular tales or devotional scenes. These layers of meaning ensured that people of different educational and spiritual backgrounds could engage with the art on their own terms.

The presence of female figures is particularly notable. In both Ajanta and Badami, women are portrayed with grace, beauty, and intelligence—not only as consorts or attendants but as active participants in stories. They appear as queens, goddesses, devotees, and moral exemplars, contributing to the richness of the visual and ethical landscape.

Beyond Ajanta and Badami: The Wider Tradition

Though Ajanta and Badami are the most prominent surviving examples, mural painting was widespread in Indian religious architecture. Caves at Bagh, Ellora, and Sittanavasal once contained elaborate painted surfaces, some of which are still partially visible today. In later centuries, mural traditions continued in temple towns like Thanjavur, Lepakshi, and Kerala, where walls and ceilings were painted with scenes from the Puranas, devotional poetry, and biographies of saints.

These traditions were eventually supplemented and replaced by manuscript illustration and later by miniature painting on paper. But the cave murals remain special because of their scale, atmosphere, and immersive quality. Unlike books or scrolls, cave paintings surround the viewer, creating a full-body experience of the sacred story. Standing in these caves, one is not simply observing a painting, but stepping into a living, breathing myth.

Comparing Architecture and Beliefs through Art

Sacred Structures as Expressions of Faith

Religious architecture and art serve as powerful reflections of the beliefs and values held by the people who create and use them. In India, the sacred spaces of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism reveal not only artistic mastery but also distinct worldviews about divinity, the path to liberation, and the nature of the universe. Although these three traditions share cultural and geographic roots, their sacred architecture and visual expressions developed in different ways to communicate their core philosophies. By comparing their temples, carvings, paintings, and symbols, one can see how each religion’s central ideas are translated into stone, space, and imagery. Hinduism’s polytheistic and cosmic worldview finds form in elaborate, towering temples teeming with divine figures. Buddhism’s emphasis on simplicity and inner awakening is mirrored in serene stupas and meditative murals. Jainism’s focus on purity, self-discipline, and non-violence is visible in symmetrical marble temples and tranquil iconography. Through this comparison, sacred architecture becomes more than construction—it becomes a language of faith.

Hinduism: Polytheism and Cosmic Design

Hindu temples are designed as microcosms of the universe, intricately crafted to express the richness and variety of divine presence. Hinduism embraces a vast pantheon of gods and goddesses, each with their own attributes, stories, and temples. This plurality is reflected in temple architecture, where nearly every surface is alive with sculpture—deities, celestial dancers, animals, mythical creatures, and epic scenes. The temple’s form, particularly the rising shikhara or vimana, represents Mount Meru, the sacred center of the cosmos. Within, the layout follows a sacred grid that aligns with vastu shastra, ensuring cosmic harmony.

The outer walls are often covered with narrative carvings from the Ramayana, Mahabharata, and Puranas, illustrating divine exploits and moral teachings. Inside, the garbhagriha—the inner sanctum—is small and dark, emphasizing the hidden and mysterious nature of the divine. The temple becomes a journey from the outer, sensory world toward the inner, spiritual core. Art in Hindu temples is not only decorative; it is didactic, metaphysical, and devotional. The abundance of forms and layers reflects the Hindu idea that the divine is both many and one, manifest and transcendent, immanent in the world and beyond it.

Buddhism: Enlightenment and Simplicity

Buddhist architecture and art, in contrast, emphasize clarity, balance, and the quiet pursuit of enlightenment. The early Buddhist stupa is a symbol of the Buddha’s mind and the path toward spiritual awakening. It is not a place for entering, but for circumambulating—walking meditatively around the structure as a form of spiritual practice. The dome represents the universe, the spire symbolizes the axis connecting earth to heaven, and the entire structure embodies the steps of the Eightfold Path.

Buddhist art, especially in places like Ajanta, expresses compassion and serenity through murals that depict the Buddha’s life and his previous births. Unlike Hindu temples that often celebrate divine action through energetic sculpture, Buddhist paintings and carvings favor calm expressions, flowing lines, and gentle gestures. Even when portraying dramatic episodes, such as the Buddha taming an angry elephant or resisting temptations under the bodhi tree, the tone remains restrained and meditative.

Buddhist monasteries and cave temples are often sparsely adorned compared to their Hindu counterparts. The emphasis is not on a divine household filled with many gods, but on the inner transformation of the individual. This aesthetic simplicity mirrors the Buddhist doctrine of renunciation, impermanence, and the ultimate goal of Nirvana—a state beyond form, suffering, and ego.

Jainism: Non-Violence, Purity, and Symmetry

Jain religious spaces are shaped by a deep commitment to non-violence (ahimsa), spiritual purity, and rigorous discipline. Jain temples, especially those made from white marble such as Dilwara and Ranakpur, reflect this worldview with their radiant clarity, symmetrical layout, and calm atmosphere. Jain architecture avoids grand gestures of divine intervention or cosmic drama. Instead, it seeks to mirror the perfected soul—balanced, detached, and serene.

Inside Jain temples, images of the tirthankaras—the enlightened teachers—are repeated throughout in meditative postures. These figures are identical in form, with subtle symbols distinguishing each. This repetition emphasizes the Jain belief that all liberated souls attain the same state of perfect knowledge and detachment. The absence of emotional expression in these statues reflects the Jain ideal of conquering passions and achieving equanimity.

Jain temple art also avoids depictions of violence or harm, even in mythological stories. The emphasis is instead on moral exemplars, peaceful renunciation, and celestial beings who support but do not interfere with the soul’s journey. Marble surfaces are meticulously polished, and the structures are designed to allow natural light and symmetry to create an atmosphere of spiritual order. Every element of design and decoration serves to elevate the mind and promote self-restraint, a hallmark of the Jain path.

Shared Traditions, Unique Expressions

While each religion developed its own architectural language, there are also shared elements. All three traditions use sacred geometry, directional alignment, and narrative art to teach spiritual truths. Cave temples such as those at Ellora contain sanctuaries from all three religions, showing not only coexistence but artistic influence. Motifs like the lotus, the wheel, and the meditative figure appear across traditions, though with different meanings.

Artists and Patrons Behind the Sacred: Key Figures in the Art of Indian Religions

Introduction: Shaping the Sacred Through Art

The religious art of Buddhism, Hinduism, and Jainism is not only a result of anonymous devotion but also the product of visionary individuals—artists, patrons, monks, and queens—who played essential roles in shaping sacred landscapes. Their contributions range from funding monumental temples and stupas to refining artistic techniques and iconography. While many artisans remain unnamed, certain historical figures—both male and female—stand out for their transformative impact on religious art. Their lives, grounded in spiritual purpose or royal ambition, left a legacy of beauty, symbolism, and storytelling that continues to inspire.

Ashoka the Great (c. 268–232 BC) – Patron of Buddhist Art

Emperor Ashoka of the Maurya Dynasty was one of the earliest and most influential patrons of Buddhist art. After converting to Buddhism following the bloody Kalinga War, Ashoka dedicated himself to spreading the Dharma (Buddha’s teachings) across India and beyond. He sponsored the construction of stupas, monasteries, and stone pillars throughout the subcontinent. Many of these pillars were inscribed with edicts promoting non-violence, tolerance, and compassion. His most famous artistic legacy includes the Sanchi Stupa and the Ashokan pillars capped with animal capitals—like the lion emblem that is now India’s national symbol. Ashoka’s patronage transformed Buddhist art from humble beginnings into a powerful tool of imperial and spiritual communication.

Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya) (r. c. 380–415 AD) – Gupta Age Visionary of Classical Hindu Art

As one of the most successful Gupta emperors, Chandragupta II presided over a period of immense artistic production. Under his patronage, Hindu art took on its classical form—marked by idealized human figures, balanced compositions, and highly symbolic temple sculpture. Temples from this era included images of gods such as Vishnu, Shiva, and their consorts, carved in flowing garments and serene expressions. Chandragupta’s court attracted poets, scholars, and artisans, and his support helped standardize iconography that would influence Hindu temple art for centuries.

Mahāvīra (599–527 BC) – Spiritual Architect of Jain Imagery

Though not an artist or ruler, Mahāvīra, the 24th tirthankara of Jainism, laid the philosophical foundation for Jain art. His emphasis on non-violence, asceticism, and the pursuit of liberation deeply influenced Jain visual traditions. Artists, under the guidance of monks, began depicting tirthankaras in symmetrical, meditative poses—standing or seated—often nude (in the Digambara tradition), with minimal ornamentation to reflect spiritual purity. While Mahāvīra himself did not commission art, the strict aesthetics of Jain temples—clean lines, marble symmetry, and peaceful deities—reflect his teachings and spiritual legacy.

Amrapali (c. 6th century BC) – Devotee and Cultural Contributor to Buddhist Patronage

Amrapali was a famous courtesan of Vaishali who later became a devout disciple of the Buddha. After hearing him preach, she renounced her luxurious life and donated her garden to the Sangha for use as a monastery. Though not an artist herself, Amrapali's story became a popular subject in Buddhist art, representing transformation, generosity, and devotion. Murals at places like Ajanta likely owe some of their storytelling themes to figures like her—women whose lives symbolized moral awakening and community support.

Vocabulary to Learn While Studying the Art of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism

1.       Stupa

·         Definition: A dome-shaped structure built as a Buddhist shrine, often containing relics of the Buddha or important monks.

·         Sentence: Pilgrims walked clockwise around the stupa to meditate and earn spiritual merit.

2.       Mandapa

·         Definition: A pillared hall or pavilion in a Hindu or Jain temple, often used for public rituals and gatherings.

·         Sentence: The mandapa was beautifully decorated with carvings of gods and dancers.

3.       Shikhara

·         Definition: The towering superstructure above the sanctum of a Hindu temple, symbolizing the sacred mountain.

·         Sentence: The shikhara of the temple could be seen rising high above the surrounding forest.

4.       Chaitya

·         Definition: A Buddhist prayer hall with a stupa at one end, often carved into rock caves.

·         Sentence: Monks gathered in the chaitya to chant and pay respect to the memory of the Buddha.

5.       Tirthankara

·         Definition: A spiritual teacher in Jainism who has attained liberation and helps others do the same.

·         Sentence: The temple had twenty-four statues, one for each tirthankara revered in Jain tradition.

6.       Jataka Tales

·         Definition: Stories about the previous lives of the Buddha, teaching moral lessons.

·         Sentence: One of the murals at Ajanta tells a Jataka tale about the Buddha’s life as a selfless prince.

7.       Ahimsa

·         Definition: The principle of non-violence toward all living beings, central to Jain and Buddhist ethics.

·         Sentence: Jain temples often display the symbol of a hand with a wheel, representing ahimsa.

8.       Fresco

·         Definition: A technique of painting on freshly applied plaster so that the colors soak into the surface.

·         Sentence: The artists at Ajanta used a fresco technique to ensure the murals would last for centuries.

9.       Dharma Wheel (Dharmachakra)

·         Definition: A symbol representing the teachings of the Buddha and the path to enlightenment.

·         Sentence: The gate to the stupa was decorated with a large Dharma Wheel, symbolizing spiritual guidance.

10.   Om

·         Definition: A sacred syllable in Hinduism symbolizing the sound of the universe and ultimate reality.

·         Sentence: The symbol Om was carved above the temple entrance, reminding visitors of divine creation.

Engaging Activities While Studying the Art of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism

Activity #1: Create Your Own Sacred Symbol MosaicRecommended Age: Grades 3–8

Activity Description: Students will learn about religious symbols such as the lotus, Dharma wheel, Om, Jain hand, and swastika (in its traditional, sacred form) and then create their own mosaic-style artwork of one symbol using colored paper or recycled materials.

Objective: To understand the spiritual meanings behind sacred symbols and visually represent them through a hands-on project.

Materials: Printed images of symbols for reference, Construction paper or magazines, Glue sticks, Scissors, Paper plates or cardboard as a base, Markers

Instructions:

1. Begin with a short lesson introducing the five symbols: what religion each one is from, and what it means.

2. Let students choose one symbol they want to recreate.

3. Have them cut small pieces of paper in different colors and arrange them as a mosaic on a cardboard base shaped like the symbol.

4. Once complete, they can present their symbol and explain what it represents.

Learning Outcome: Students will learn to recognize sacred symbols, understand their deeper meanings, and connect religious ideas with creative expression.

Activity #2: Cave Wall Storytelling with Natural PaintsRecommended Age: Grades 4–9

Activity Description: Students will recreate the process of cave mural painting using natural or earth-tone paints on paper taped to walls to simulate the experience of Ajanta or Badami artists.

Objective: To appreciate the storytelling role of murals and experience ancient painting methods in a hands-on way.

Materials: Brown butcher paper or kraft paper, Natural tone tempera or watercolor paints (red, yellow, black, white, brown), Paintbrushes and sponges, Chalk for sketching, Tape

Instructions:

1. Discuss how monks and artists painted murals on cave walls to teach religious stories.

2. Let students choose a Jataka tale, Hindu epic scene, or Jain tirthankara story.

3. Tape large sheets of paper to classroom or hallway walls.

4. Students sketch their story in chalk, then paint using limited earthy colors to simulate ancient palettes.

5. Display the “cave walls” and let students explain their scenes in a gallery walk.

Learning Outcome: Students will better understand how religious stories were visually transmitted in sacred spaces, recognize key figures and tales, and connect physical activity with cultural appreciation.