3. Heroes and Villains of Colonial Life in the America: Maryland and the Refuge for Catholics

My Name is George Calvert: Lord Baltimore

I was born in 1579 in Yorkshire, England, the son of a Catholic family at a time when our faith was dangerous to practice openly. From an early age, I was drawn to learning and the life of service. I studied at Trinity College, Oxford, and later found myself drawn into the circles of power through my education and skills in languages and law. My Catholic upbringing, though quietly held, would shape much of the course of my life and the vision I later pursued.

Service to the Crown

As a young man, I rose in government service under King James I. My loyalty and administrative ability earned me a place as a secretary of state. I was knighted and respected, yet even as I served the Protestant crown, I carried with me the burden of being a Catholic in a Protestant world. The law demanded outward conformity, but my inner faith never left me. Eventually, I openly converted back to Catholicism, knowing it meant giving up my office but freeing my conscience.

The Irish Experiment

My first dream of building a refuge for Catholics took form in Ireland. I was granted lands in County Longford, which I called the Manor of Baltimore. It was there that I first sought to create a community where Catholics might live in peace and security. Yet Ireland was unstable, and the experiment faltered under the weight of conflict and resistance. Still, the idea of a safe haven grew stronger within me, and I began to look westward, across the Atlantic.

The Virginia Experience

In 1629, I traveled with my family to Virginia, hoping to see if we might settle there. But Virginia was hostile ground for Catholics, and I was forced to leave after only a short time. Yet from that journey came inspiration. I saw the potential of the New World as a place where freedom could be planted and nurtured, far from the religious strife of Europe. My eyes were now fixed on establishing a colony of our own, under our own terms.

The Maryland Charter

I petitioned King Charles I for a grant of land north of Virginia, where we might establish a colony. Though I did not live to see its completion, the charter was issued in 1632, shortly after my death. It granted my heirs almost feudal authority over this land, which would be called Maryland, in honor of Queen Henrietta Maria. My son Cecilius would carry the dream forward, building the refuge I had only begun to envision.

My Legacy

Though my days ended before I could set foot in Maryland, my vision lived on through my children. Maryland became a place where Catholics and Protestants alike could worship more freely than in any other colony, though the peace would not always last. I am remembered not only as Lord Baltimore but as a man who dared to dream of freedom of conscience. My life was shaped by service, by struggle, and by faith, and through those struggles came the seed of religious toleration that would one day grow into a central principle of America.

The Vision of a Catholic Refuge – Told by George Calvert

I was born into a Catholic family in England, and though I rose to serve King James I as Secretary of State, my faith was always a burden under the law. Catholics were fined for not attending Protestant services, barred from holding public office, and treated with suspicion. For years I outwardly conformed, attending the required services, while inwardly remaining true to the faith of my family. At last, I could no longer endure the pretense, and I openly declared myself a Catholic. The cost was high, for I lost my office and influence, but I gained peace of conscience.

The Dream of Freedom

My conversion deepened my desire to create a place where Catholics could live without fear. I had seen too much division in England, where faith was a mark of loyalty or treason, and I longed for a land where such divisions might be softened. My first attempt came in Ireland, where I sought to build a community at Baltimore, but unrest and conflict made that dream short-lived. Still, the vision within me did not die. I began to look beyond the seas.

Hope in the New World

When I traveled to Virginia, I saw both opportunity and danger. The land was rich, but the hostility toward Catholics was sharp and unyielding. Yet I believed that the New World, far from the entrenched quarrels of Europe, could offer a fresh beginning. If a colony could be established under my family’s authority, it could be governed with a spirit of toleration rather than persecution.

Maryland as a Refuge

Thus, I petitioned King Charles I for a charter to establish a colony north of Virginia. My plan was not to build a land only for Catholics, but a refuge where Catholics could live in safety among Protestants, with laws that protected both. I envisioned Maryland as a place where conscience could be free, where men and women might farm, trade, and worship without fear of fines or imprisonment.

A Legacy of Toleration

Though I died before the charter was granted, my son Cecilius carried forward the vision. Maryland became the home where Catholics could worship more freely than anywhere else in the English world, though not without struggle. I hoped that by planting this principle of toleration, I might help shape a better future, where faith was not a crime but a gift each person might hold without fear. That was my vision, born from persecution, and it is the dream for which I am remembered.

My Name is Cecilius Calvert: 2nd Lord Baltimore

I was born in 1605, the eldest son of George Calvert, the first Lord Baltimore. My father was a man of great ambition and faith, determined to create a refuge for Catholics who suffered persecution in England. When he died in 1632, the burden of his vision fell upon my shoulders. I was only twenty-six years old when I became the 2nd Lord Baltimore and was entrusted with carrying out a bold plan across the ocean.

The Maryland Charter

My father had petitioned King Charles I for a colony in the New World, and after his passing, the king granted the charter to me. This charter gave me and my heirs almost royal authority over the land between the Potomac River and the 40th parallel. We named the colony Maryland in honor of Queen Henrietta Maria. With this power came enormous responsibility: to establish a settlement that balanced economic opportunity with my father’s dream of religious refuge.

Preparing the Expedition

Though I myself never left England, it was my duty to organize and finance the expedition that would sail to Maryland. I sent my brother, Leonard Calvert, to lead the settlers, and he departed in 1633 aboard the Ark and the Dove. These ships carried not only Catholics but also Protestants, for I knew the success of our colony depended on tolerance and cooperation. Their safe landing in 1634 marked the true beginning of Maryland.

Governing from Afar

It was a difficult challenge to govern a colony I had never seen. Reports reached me of hardships, conflicts, and opportunities, and I issued instructions and laws to guide my brother and the settlers. One of my greatest concerns was preserving religious peace. Catholics were a minority even in Maryland, and I knew the colony could not survive if Protestants felt oppressed. Thus, I insisted on laws of toleration and fairness to protect all Christians.

The Act of Toleration

In 1649, under my authority, Maryland passed the Act Concerning Religion, known as the Act of Toleration. This was one of the first laws in the English-speaking world to protect the free exercise of Christian faith, whether Catholic or Protestant. It did not end strife, for divisions between the two groups remained, but it set a precedent for the principle of religious liberty that would later shape America.

Struggles and Conflicts

Maryland was not free of turmoil. Protestants sometimes rose against Catholic leadership, and there were moments when control of the colony slipped from my grasp. Civil wars in England also reached across the Atlantic, creating unrest. Yet I never abandoned the colony, working tirelessly to defend its charter and maintain its autonomy against rivals in Virginia and Pennsylvania.

My Legacy

I died in 1675, never having seen the land I governed for over forty years. Yet I take pride in what Maryland became. It grew into a prosperous colony, a place where Catholics found greater safety than anywhere else in the English world. Though far from perfect, it was a step toward the freedom of conscience that would one day become a foundation of America. My life was spent in defense of my father’s dream, and though I ruled from afar, Maryland will always be the testament to our family’s faith and resolve.

The Founding Charter of 1632 – Told by Cecilius Calvert

When my father died in 1632, his petition for a colony in the New World was still before King Charles I. The king, who was sympathetic to our family and grateful for my father’s years of service, granted the charter to me. It was one of the most generous charters ever given by the English crown. The land stretched from the Potomac River in the south to the 40th parallel in the north, and from the Atlantic to the Chesapeake Bay. This vast territory would be called Maryland, in honor of Queen Henrietta Maria.

Authority Like a Prince

The charter made me, and my heirs after me, Lords Proprietor of Maryland. This meant we held power almost equal to that of a king within the colony’s borders. I could create laws with the consent of the freemen, establish courts, grant titles, and distribute land. Unlike other colonies, Maryland was not directly controlled by the crown or by a company of merchants. Instead, the charter placed its governance in the hands of my family, a remarkable trust and responsibility.

Religious Freedom Envisioned

Though the charter did not speak directly of religion, its freedoms allowed me to shape Maryland into a place of toleration. Catholics had suffered much in England, and though we were a minority even among our settlers, the autonomy of the charter meant I could protect them. I chose to allow Protestants and Catholics to live together, worship, and work side by side, something rare in our age. This freedom was the heart of Maryland’s uniqueness.

Unusual Autonomy

Most colonies had to answer constantly to the king, Parliament, or trading companies. Maryland, however, was largely self-governing. I appointed governors, sent instructions, and ensured the colony’s defense. We were not free from oversight entirely—the king could revoke our charter if we failed in loyalty—but day-to-day decisions belonged to me and my representatives. This gave us great flexibility to adapt, survive, and grow.

The Promise of Maryland

The charter of 1632 was more than a grant of land; it was a promise of a different kind of colony. It entrusted my family with the opportunity to build a society rooted in both prosperity and toleration. Though we faced many struggles—political unrest, Protestant uprisings, and pressures from neighboring colonies—the charter gave us the foundation to endure. It was the gift that allowed Maryland to take shape not just as another outpost of England, but as a refuge and a new experiment in freedom.

The English Civil War’s Impact on Maryland – Told by Cecilius Calvert

When England was torn apart by civil war in 1642, its divisions reached far beyond the island. King Charles I and Parliament fought for control, and the conflict became not only political but deeply religious. As a Catholic, I supported the King, while many Protestants rallied to Parliament. These loyalties did not remain in England alone—they spilled into every colony, Maryland included.

Maryland Divided

Our colony had been founded as a place of toleration, but the war tested that fragile balance. Catholics were loyal to me and to the King, while many Protestants looked to Parliament for authority. Old resentments sharpened, and neighbors who once lived side by side began to see each other as enemies. Maryland became a smaller stage upon which the great conflict of England was played.

The Rebellion of Ingle and Claiborne

The civil war gave William Claiborne and Richard Ingle their chance. They claimed to act in the name of Parliament when they attacked Maryland during the period known as the Plundering Time. St. Mary’s was seized, Catholic leaders were driven out, and for two years, my authority was overturned. In truth, it was less loyalty to Parliament than ambition and revenge that drove them, but the war gave them their excuse.

The Loss of Toleration

The war also weakened our efforts at religious freedom. Parliamentarian victories in England emboldened Protestants in Maryland to challenge Catholic authority. At one point, the Act of Toleration was repealed, and Catholic worship was outlawed. The very colony that had been founded as a refuge for Catholics became, for a time, a place of persecution once more.

Struggles to Restore Order

I fought to defend Maryland’s charter and restore peace, even from across the sea. In 1658, after years of unrest, I regained control of the government and reinstated the Act of Toleration. Yet the lesson was clear: the fate of Maryland could never be separated from the fate of England. When the mother country bled, we bled as well.

The Legacy of the War

The English Civil War left scars upon Maryland. It showed how easily the dream of toleration could be undone by the weight of politics and religion. Though I restored order, I knew that Catholics would never again hold the same place they had in the colony’s earliest days. Still, the struggle proved the value of what we had tried to build, for freedom is most precious when it is most threatened. The war in England ended with the death of a king, but in Maryland it left us with a deeper resolve to protect the fragile peace of conscience we had begun.

My Name is Leonard Calvert: First Governor of Maryland

I was born in 1606, the younger son of George Calvert, the first Lord Baltimore. My father was a man of vision, determined to find a place where Catholics could live without fear of persecution. My elder brother Cecilius inherited his title and charter after our father’s death, but I was given the honor and duty of carrying that dream across the Atlantic.

Chosen to Lead

When King Charles I granted the Maryland Charter in 1632, it was Cecilius who held authority as Lord Proprietor. Yet he remained in England to defend the colony’s rights and guide its governance from afar. It was I who was chosen to lead the first settlers to the new land. I accepted this role with both pride and trepidation, for the success or failure of the colony would rest heavily on my shoulders.

The Voyage of the Ark and the Dove

In 1633, I set sail with around 300 colonists aboard two ships, the Ark and the Dove. Our company was diverse—Catholics, Protestants, laborers, and gentlemen—all bound for an uncertain future. The journey was long and harsh, but we arrived safely in 1634 at the mouth of the Chesapeake Bay. From there we moved inland and established our settlement at St. Mary’s City, the first capital of Maryland.

Relations with the Yaocomico

One of my earliest responsibilities was to secure peaceful relations with the Native peoples. We negotiated with the Yaocomico, a branch of the Piscataway, and purchased land for our settlement. They offered us not only land but also guidance in survival, showing us how to plant crops and adapt to the environment. This spirit of cooperation spared us the bloodshed that had scarred other colonies in their first years.

Governance and Law

As governor, I faced the challenge of balancing authority with fairness. I enforced the wishes of my brother Cecilius while trying to ensure the colony remained stable and prosperous. I worked to uphold laws that would grant religious toleration, for I knew that Catholics were a minority even in Maryland and that peace depended on allowing Protestants to worship freely.

Times of Conflict

Maryland was not free of struggle. Protestant settlers at times rebelled against Catholic leadership, and rivalries with neighboring Virginia created tension. During the English Civil War, turmoil in the mother country spilled over into our colony, and I was once forced to flee St. Mary’s City when Protestants briefly took control. Still, I returned and restored order, keeping Maryland intact during its most fragile years.

My Final Years

I continued to govern until my death in 1647. I was only forty-one years old, but in my short life I had carried the burden of leadership in a dangerous and uncertain time. Though my days ended early, I took solace in knowing Maryland survived its first years and began to grow into the refuge my father had imagined.

My Legacy

I am remembered as the first governor of Maryland, a leader who guided the colony through its infancy. My life was marked by duty, service, and faith. Though others would continue the work after me, I am proud to have played my part in planting a community that strove for peace and religious toleration, a small but significant step toward the freedoms that later generations would cherish.

The Voyage of the Ark and the Dove (1633–1634) – Told by Leonard Calvert

Setting Sail

In the year 1633, I was given the charge of leading the first settlers to Maryland. My brother Cecilius, Lord Baltimore, remained in England to protect our rights and defend the charter, while I would carry his vision across the sea. We departed with two ships: the larger Ark and the smaller Dove. On board were about three hundred souls—Catholics and Protestants, gentlemen and laborers, servants and adventurers—all seeking a new life in a land of promise.

Crossing the Atlantic

The journey was long and perilous. The sea is never kind to those who challenge it, and storms battered our ships, testing the resolve of the settlers. Illness swept among us, as it often did on such voyages, and provisions were stretched thin. Some feared we might never see land again, but we endured with faith and determination. Each day was a reminder of how far we had left behind the old world and how uncertain our future truly was.

Arrival in the Chesapeake

At last, after weeks upon the ocean, we reached the shores of the Chesapeake Bay in early 1634. The sight of land stirred both relief and excitement. We sailed up the Potomac River, searching for a place to settle. Our hopes rested on finding ground that could sustain us and provide peace from our neighbors, for we knew the failures of other colonies that had begun with conflict.

Choosing St. Mary’s

We came upon the Yaocomico people, a branch of the Piscataway. With them we struck a peaceful bargain: we purchased land where we might build our town, and they, in turn, shared their knowledge of farming and survival. This spirit of goodwill spared us the bloodshed that had marked the beginnings of other colonies. On that land we established St. Mary’s City, which became our capital and the heart of Maryland’s first years.

Hardships and Hope

Though we had found land and peace, our trials did not end. The first years were marked by hunger, sickness, and the struggle to build homes and farms in the wilderness. Yet there was also hope. We planted our fields, raised our families, and worshiped with a freedom unknown in England. We endured together, Catholics and Protestants, bound by necessity and the promise of a new beginning.

The First Steps of a Refuge

The voyage of the Ark and the Dove was more than a crossing of the ocean. It was the beginning of a vision made real, the planting of a community where faith and freedom could take root. Though hardships tested us, our landing at St. Mary’s City marked the first step toward fulfilling my father’s dream and my brother’s charter. It was a fragile beginning, but it was ours, and from it Maryland would grow.

Early Relations with Native Peoples – Told by Leonard Calvert

When we first arrived in 1634, we knew that our survival depended not only on the strength of our own company but also on how we were received by those who already lived in the land. The Chesapeake was home to many Native peoples, and though some colonists in other regions had met with hostility, I was determined that Maryland’s beginnings would be marked by peace, not bloodshed.

The Yaocomico Encounter

It was the Yaocomico, a branch of the Piscataway people, who became our first neighbors and guides. They welcomed us with caution but also with generosity. We met with their leaders and opened discussions about land. Rather than seizing what we needed, as others had done, we sought to purchase it. The Yaocomico agreed to sell us part of their village, offering both land and shelter as they prepared to move elsewhere.

An Exchange of Knowledge

The agreement was more than the transfer of ground; it was the beginning of mutual dependence. They taught us how to grow crops suited to the soil, how to fish the rivers, and how to endure the seasons. In return, we brought them goods from England—cloth, tools, and metalware—which they valued. This exchange built trust and gave us the chance to learn how to survive in a land that was new to us but home to them for generations.

Maintaining Peace

In the early years, the peace we established with the Yaocomico spared us the miseries that plagued other colonies. While Jamestown had nearly been destroyed by conflict, St. Mary’s grew slowly but steadily under the protection of good relations. I urged the settlers to honor the agreements we made and to treat our neighbors with fairness. Though tension sometimes rose, the foundation of peace remained strong enough to guide us through our first, most fragile years.

The Gift of Time

The willingness of the Yaocomico to work with us gave us the precious gift of time. Time to plant our fields, to build our homes, and to strengthen our community. Without their aid, we might well have perished in those early winters. Their role in our survival cannot be forgotten, for it was their generosity and our willingness to meet them in peace that allowed Maryland to take root.

A Lesson for the Future

I have often reflected that our success in those early days was not built on conquest but on cooperation. By seeking peace and fair dealing, we were able to establish Maryland without the violence that marked so many beginnings elsewhere. It is a lesson that the colony carried forward, though later years would bring new challenges. For a brief time, at least, we showed that two peoples could meet as neighbors and build a shared foundation.

Relations with Other Native Nations Beyond the Yaocomico – Told by Calvert

The First PeaceWhen we first settled in 1634, our agreement with the Yaocomico allowed us to plant St. Mary’s City without bloodshed. Their willingness to sell us land and teach us how to survive gave the colony a chance to live. Yet Maryland could not remain a single village. As more settlers arrived and fields of tobacco spread, our need for land grew, and with it came new encounters with other Native nations of the Chesapeake.

Expansion Brings Tension

Beyond the Yaocomico lived the powerful Piscataway Confederacy, whose influence stretched across southern Maryland. At first, relations were cautious but workable. We traded for food and furs, and they accepted our presence so long as we remained small. But as our numbers increased, the balance began to strain. Each new settlement pressed deeper into their hunting grounds, and each new field of tobacco meant less land for their people.

The Susquehannock Challenge

To the north were the Susquehannock, a fierce and warlike nation. They were skilled traders and controlled the flow of furs in the region. Unlike the Yaocomico, they did not welcome our presence so easily. Their strength forced us to tread carefully, for conflict with them could have undone all we had built. At times they traded with us, at other times they threatened war, reminding us that Maryland’s survival depended as much on diplomacy as on arms.

Shifting Alliances

Our relations with Native peoples were never fixed. Some groups sought our friendship to strengthen themselves against rivals, while others resisted our encroachment. We tried to maintain peace by negotiation and trade, but the pressure of expansion was constant. Even when treaties were made, they were fragile, for our hunger for land rarely slowed.

The Uncertain Future

Though in my time we avoided large-scale wars with Native nations, the seeds of conflict were planted. The peace we enjoyed with the Yaocomico was an exception, not a rule, and each year of growth brought us closer to disputes with those whose lands we claimed. I often reflected that Maryland’s survival depended not only on our own strength but also on how wisely we managed these fragile relationships. For without peace, our young colony would have faced ruin.

The Religious Toleration Act of 1649 – Told by Cecilius Calvert

From the very beginning, I knew Maryland could not survive if it became a battlefield of faith. Catholics were few, Protestants many, and both groups carried with them the bitterness of Europe’s religious strife. My father had dreamed of a refuge for Catholics, but I saw that if Maryland was to prosper, it must be a refuge for Protestants as well. Only by protecting both could we hope to build a lasting peace.

The Act Concerning Religion

In 1649, under my authority, the Maryland Assembly passed what came to be called the Act Concerning Religion, though most now remember it as the Act of Toleration. This law declared that no Christian in Maryland would be harassed or punished for practicing his faith, so long as he professed belief in Jesus Christ. It was not freedom for all faiths, but for its time it was a remarkable step. At a moment when Catholics and Protestants fought bitter wars in Europe, here in Maryland we planted the idea that neighbors of different creeds might live together in peace.

A Fragile Experiment

The law did not end division, nor did it silence conflict. There were still uprisings, disputes, and challenges to Catholic leadership. Yet the Act gave us a foundation for coexistence, and it showed the world that a colony could seek unity not through uniformity, but through tolerance. For many, it was the first time they could worship openly without fear of imprisonment or ruin.

Importance in History

Though the Act was sometimes ignored, repealed, or overturned in later years, its spirit endured. It was one of the earliest legal protections of religious liberty in the English-speaking world. In time, the principle that began in Maryland spread far beyond its borders, influencing the ideals that would one day be enshrined in the United States Constitution. The First Amendment’s promise of freedom of religion echoes the seed we planted in 1649.

My Reflection

I did not create a perfect colony. Maryland saw its share of turmoil and discord. But I believe that in passing the Act of Toleration, we struck a blow against the chains of persecution. We showed that faith could be defended not by force, but by law. It was a fragile beginning, but it gave hope that freedom of conscience was not only possible, but worth protecting. That, above all, is the legacy of Maryland’s Act of 1649.

My Name is Margaret Brent: Landowner and Advocate in Maryland

I was born in 1601 into a wealthy and prominent Catholic family in Gloucestershire, England. As a woman, I was not expected to play a public role in affairs of law or governance, but my strong will and determination often led me beyond the boundaries set for my sex. My faith shaped my life, for Catholics faced many hardships and restrictions in England, and I longed for a place where I could live freely.

Journey to the New World

In 1638, my sister Mary and I sailed for Maryland, seeking new opportunities and a fresh start in the colony founded by the Calverts. I was among the first women to arrive and to take advantage of the rights that the new colony offered. Unlike in England, I could own land in my own name, and I soon acquired large estates. These lands gave me wealth and influence, making me one of the most powerful settlers in Maryland.

Life in St. Mary’s City

At St. Mary’s City, I became deeply involved in the affairs of the community. I managed my estates, engaged in trade, and provided leadership in times of crisis. Many colonists came to me for counsel, and I earned a reputation as both shrewd and fair. My role as a landowner gave me a voice in the Assembly, though as a woman, my presence there was unusual and often contested.

Protector of the Colony

One of the defining moments of my life came after the death of Governor Leonard Calvert in 1647. Before his passing, he entrusted me with managing his estate and charged me with using his resources to pay soldiers who had defended the colony. I stepped into this responsibility with vigor, ensuring Maryland’s defense did not collapse. It was a heavy burden, but I fulfilled it faithfully, even petitioning for more authority to stabilize the colony.

The Famous Petition

In 1648, I demanded not only a voice but also a vote in the Assembly, declaring that I had acted for the good of the colony and deserved recognition. My request was denied because I was a woman, but my boldness was remembered. I became one of the first women in the English colonies to stand openly for political rights, not just for myself but for the good of the community.

A Woman of Influence

Though I did not succeed in gaining the vote, I did succeed in demonstrating that women could wield authority in times of need. I was respected, even by those who opposed me, because I acted with courage and integrity. My management of estates, my protection of Maryland in its time of peril, and my insistence on fairness left a lasting mark on the colony.

My Legacy

I died in 1671, leaving behind the story of a woman who dared to step into roles few believed possible for her gender. I am remembered as Maryland’s first woman lawyer, landowner, and advocate for political rights. My life was one of service, independence, and courage, and though I did not see my petition succeed, I like to think that I planted seeds for future generations of women to claim their place in public life.

Life in St. Mary’s City – Told by Margaret Brent

When I arrived in Maryland in 1638, St. Mary’s City was still a young settlement. It was the capital of the colony, but in truth it looked more like a scattered village than a city. Houses were built of timber, fields pressed close to the town, and the great Chesapeake Bay stretched before us as both a barrier and a lifeline. Life here was not easy, but it was rich with opportunity for those willing to work and endure.

Farming and Survival

Most families depended on the land. Tobacco was our lifeblood, the crop that brought wealth, though it required hard labor and constant care. Corn, beans, and squash filled our fields as well, providing food for our tables and security against hunger. Men, women, and servants all worked in the fields, for survival demanded it. The cycle of planting and harvest marked the rhythm of our lives, and even the wealthiest among us knew that the colony would stand or fall by the strength of its crops.

Trade and Exchange

St. Mary’s was also a place of trade. Ships from England brought cloth, tools, and goods we could not produce, and we sent back tobacco in return. We traded with Native peoples as well, exchanging iron tools and cloth for food, furs, and knowledge of the land. In time, shops and taverns appeared, serving as centers of both business and conversation. Trade bound us to the wider world even as we struggled to make Maryland our home.

Family and Community

Life revolved around the family. Large households, often with many children and servants, formed the backbone of society. Families worked together in the fields, shared the burdens of survival, and taught the young the values of duty, faith, and hard work. Though the colony was small, it was knit together by the bonds of kinship and necessity. We could not afford division, for every pair of hands was needed.

Faith and Worship

Religion, too, shaped daily life. St. Mary’s was unusual in that both Catholics and Protestants lived side by side. Churches and chapels stood near one another, and though tensions sometimes arose, many of us simply lived our faith quietly while respecting our neighbors. For Catholics, the chance to worship openly was a rare gift, and even for Protestants, the freedom of conscience we attempted to maintain was a relief compared to the harsh restrictions of Europe.

The Spirit of St. Mary’s

St. Mary’s City was not grand, nor was it without struggle. It was a town of rough homes, tobacco fields, busy docks, and simple chapels. Yet it was also a place of hope. Here, men and women—Catholic and Protestant, free and servant—worked together to carve a life from the wilderness. In the hard soil of Maryland, we planted not just crops but the idea that community could endure through faith, labor, and a measure of tolerance. That was the spirit of St. Mary’s, and it remains the heart of Maryland’s story.

Role of Women in the Colony – Told by Margaret Brent

When I arrived in Maryland in 1638 with my sister, I quickly claimed my place as a landowner. In England, women seldom held such independence, but here the law allowed me to patent land in my own name. I acquired large estates and managed them with care, hiring servants, planting tobacco, and engaging in trade. My wealth and position gave me influence unusual for a woman of my time, and I used it not for idleness, but for service to the colony.

Stepping Into Public Life

It was not enough to manage my estates; I felt called to speak when the welfare of the colony was at stake. I appeared before the Assembly to present my views and to defend my rights as a property holder. Many were surprised, for women were not expected to act in political affairs, yet I would not be silent when I believed my voice was needed. Though I was denied an official vote, I made petitions with such force and reason that I could not be ignored.

The Crisis of 1647

The greatest test of my resolve came after the death of Governor Leonard Calvert in 1647. Before he passed, he entrusted me with his estate and charged me to use it to pay the soldiers who had defended Maryland during a time of rebellion. I accepted this duty, though it placed me at the center of the colony’s most delicate crisis. Without proper pay, the soldiers threatened disorder, and the colony itself might have collapsed.

The Famous Petition

I appeared before the Assembly and demanded not only recognition but a vote, declaring that I had acted in the governor’s place and deserved a voice equal to any man’s. My request was denied, yet I persisted in my role. I distributed Leonard Calvert’s estate to the soldiers, calming their unrest and stabilizing the colony when it teetered on the edge of ruin. Though history remembers my petition as bold, it was, above all, practical. Maryland survived because I stood firm.

A Legacy for Women

I did not succeed in securing formal political rights, but I proved that a woman could wield authority in times of crisis. I showed that ownership of land and strength of character could give a woman a place in public life, even when law and custom resisted. My story is not only my own but a reminder that women, too, helped to shape the destiny of Maryland. In managing estates, in keeping peace, and in defending the colony, we played roles that should not be forgotten.

Conflicts Between Protestants and Catholics – Told by Cecilius Calvert

From the beginning, I knew that Maryland could not be a colony for Catholics alone. Protestants were the majority among the settlers, and without their labor and loyalty the colony could not thrive. Yet I also knew that Catholics, though fewer, deserved protection and dignity. The balance was delicate, for the divisions of England followed us across the sea. The old wounds of Reformation and persecution were never far from the surface.

The First Uprisings

Tensions rose quickly in the early years. Some Protestants, uneasy under Catholic leadership, questioned my authority and the role of my brother Leonard as governor. In 1645, Richard Ingle led what came to be called “Ingle’s Rebellion,” seizing control of St. Mary’s and driving Catholics from positions of power. For a time, the order of the colony collapsed, and the dream of a refuge for all seemed near its end. Only after Leonard’s return was authority restored.

The Act of Toleration Tested

When the Act of Toleration was passed in 1649, I hoped it would quiet unrest. It promised freedom of worship for all Christians, whether Catholic or Protestant. Yet peace was fleeting. The English Civil War raged across the Atlantic, and Maryland became entangled in the struggle between royalists and Parliamentarians. Protestants, emboldened by their numbers, pressed for greater control, while Catholics struggled to hold their place.

The Protestant Takeover

In 1654, the conflict reached its height. Parliamentarian forces in England, hostile to Catholic influence, supported Protestants in Maryland who seized control of the government. They repealed the Act of Toleration and declared Catholic worship illegal. For a time, Maryland, founded as a refuge for Catholics, became a place of persecution once more. My authority as Proprietor was weakened, and the colony nearly slipped from my family’s hands.

The Return of Proprietary Rule

In 1658, after years of struggle, I regained control of the colony and restored the Act of Toleration. Yet the lesson was clear: religious liberty in Maryland was fragile, subject to the storms of politics and the weight of prejudice. Though the law stood, Catholics would never again hold the same authority they had in the colony’s earliest days.

A Lasting Struggle

The conflicts between Protestants and Catholics showed how difficult it was to build a society on toleration in an age of division. We tried to prove that different faiths could coexist, but suspicion and ambition too often drowned out peace. Still, Maryland’s experiment, though imperfect, left its mark. It planted the idea that religious liberty, once tasted, was worth defending, even in the face of rebellion and loss.

The Protestant Revolution of 1689 – Told by Margaret Brent

Though I had passed from this world before those events, I must speak of how the tides in England once again reshaped Maryland. In 1688, the Glorious Revolution removed the Catholic King James II from the throne and placed the Protestant monarchs William and Mary in power. What seemed a victory for Protestants in England became, in Maryland, the spark for upheaval.

The Fall of Catholic Authority

For more than fifty years, the Calverts had struggled to protect Catholic settlers through the laws of toleration. But the Glorious Revolution emboldened Protestants in Maryland who had long resented Catholic leadership. In 1689, they rose in revolt, deposed the Proprietor’s government, and declared themselves loyal to the new monarchs in England. Catholic leaders, once protectors of the colony, were stripped of their authority.

The Outlawing of Catholic Worship

The most painful blow came soon after. The dream of Maryland as a refuge for Catholics was undone. Public Catholic worship was outlawed, and Catholics were barred from holding office. The very colony that my friend George Calvert had envisioned as a haven now became a place of persecution. The experiment in toleration, so fragile from the start, collapsed beneath the weight of fear and division.

The Protestant Ascendancy

From 1692 onward, Maryland was placed under royal government as a royal colony. The Church of England became the established faith, supported by taxes collected from all. Catholics retreated into private chapels, worshiping in secret as they had once done in England. The colony that had begun with hope for coexistence now mirrored the divisions of the old world it had sought to escape.

A Lesson in Freedom’s Fragility

Looking back, I see in the Protestant Revolution of 1689 a harsh reminder of how delicate liberty is. What can be given by law can also be taken away, and what is tolerated in one generation may be outlawed in the next. Maryland’s promise was broken, but the memory of what we attempted did not vanish. In time, when America was born, the lessons of our failures helped inspire stronger protections, enshrined in a Constitution that promised true freedom of religion.

Economic Foundations of Maryland – Told by George Calvert

When I first dreamed of Maryland, I knew that for the colony to endure it would need more than freedom of worship. It would need a strong economy. The soil of the Chesapeake was rich, the rivers deep, and the climate well suited for farming. From the beginning, I believed that the land itself would provide the means for Maryland to grow and prosper, but it was tobacco that became the true foundation of our wealth.

Tobacco as Lifeblood

Tobacco was not merely a crop; it was the lifeblood of Maryland. Its leaves were shipped across the Atlantic and eagerly bought in England, bringing the settlers both income and standing. Fields of tobacco spread quickly, sometimes at the expense of food crops, for men and women knew that tobacco was the surest path to profit. It became our currency, used to pay debts, taxes, and even wages. In every sense, tobacco shaped the rhythm of life in the colony.

Indentured Servitude

Yet tobacco demanded labor, and in the early years, that labor came through indentured servitude. Men and women from England signed contracts, often for four to seven years, in exchange for passage across the ocean. They worked the fields, endured the heat, and built the foundations of Maryland’s farms. At the end of their service, some gained land of their own, but many perished before their freedom could be claimed. Indentured servitude was harsh, but it supplied the hands needed to keep the colony alive.

The Shift Toward Slavery

Over time, the reliance on indentured servants proved unstable. Too many sought land of their own when their service ended, leading to unrest and competition. Planters looked for labor that would not demand freedom or land, and thus the shift began toward African slavery. By the middle of the seventeenth century, enslaved Africans were brought into Maryland, forced to labor in the tobacco fields for life. This marked a turning point in the colony’s economy and in its moral course, for slavery brought immense wealth to some but unimaginable suffering to others.

The Legacy of the Economy

Maryland’s prosperity was built on tobacco, but that prosperity came at a great cost. Indentured servants bore the weight of the early years, and enslaved Africans bore it thereafter. The economy made the colony strong, but it also laid the roots of inequality and injustice that would endure for generations. When I dreamed of Maryland, I imagined a refuge of peace and opportunity. The land did provide, but in ways both hopeful and harsh. This was the economic foundation of Maryland—rich in promise, yet shadowed by the burdens it placed upon so many.

Slavery and Race-Based Laws – Told by George Calvert

When Maryland was first envisioned, its economy was to rest on the labor of those who sought opportunity in the New World. Indentured servitude was the foundation at the start. Men and women in England signed contracts to work for years in exchange for passage across the ocean. Many never lived to see their freedom, but some did, and they joined the colony as landowners and farmers in their own right. This system, though harsh, allowed for mobility and hope, at least for a few.

The Turn Toward Slavery

In time, however, the planters sought a more permanent and controllable source of labor. The endless demand for tobacco could not be met by indentured servants alone, and many who finished their contracts demanded land of their own, creating tension and competition. It was then that the colony began to rely more heavily on the labor of Africans, brought across the sea against their will. Unlike servants, they were bound not for a term of years but for life.

The Creation of Race-Based Laws

As African slavery took root, the colony’s laws hardened to protect it. Children born to enslaved women were declared slaves themselves, ensuring that bondage would pass from generation to generation. Laws were written to separate Africans from Europeans, denying them the chance for freedom, property, or equality under the law. What had begun as a matter of labor became a matter of race, with skin color itself made the mark of servitude.

The Transformation of the Colony

This shift changed Maryland profoundly. Tobacco brought wealth to the great planters, but it did so at the price of human bondage. The fields were worked by men and women who had no hope of freedom, and the colony’s society grew more unequal with each passing year. Prosperity for a few rested upon the suffering of many, and the ideals of liberty and toleration that had once been our pride were darkened by the shadow of slavery.

The Legacy of Bondage

Though I did not live to see how deeply slavery would shape Maryland, I cannot help but reflect on how far the colony strayed from my original vision. I dreamed of a refuge for faith and opportunity, but the system of race-based slavery planted seeds of injustice that would long outlast the seventeenth century. It brought economic stability, yet at a cost that could never be justified. This, too, became part of Maryland’s legacy, a contradiction that America would one day be forced to confront.

The Plundering Time (1644–1646) – Told by Leonard Calvert

Maryland was still a young colony when the turmoil of England’s Civil War reached our shores. The struggle between King Charles and Parliament divided loyalties across the Atlantic, and here in the Chesapeake, those divisions gave fuel to old rivalries. William Claiborne, long an enemy of Maryland’s authority, and Richard Ingle, a Parliamentarian captain, seized the moment to strike against us. What followed was a time of violence and chaos that our people would remember as the Plundering Time.

The Attack on St. Mary’s

In 1644, Richard Ingle sailed into the Chesapeake under the banner of Parliament. He joined forces with Claiborne, who had never ceased claiming Kent Island. Together, they attacked St. Mary’s City, our capital. The town was overrun, Catholic leaders were driven out, and records and property were destroyed. Families fled into the countryside, and the fragile peace we had built was shattered. For two long years, St. Mary’s was in the hands of our enemies.

Chaos and Division

During this dark time, the authority of Maryland’s government nearly collapsed. The invaders looted homes, seized goods, and declared themselves rulers in the name of Parliament. Many Protestants in the colony sided with them, while Catholics and loyalists to the Proprietor were forced into hiding. The very foundation of Maryland as a place of toleration seemed to crumble, and fear ruled more than law.

My Return to Power

Though I was forced to flee during the worst of the violence, I did not abandon Maryland. With loyal supporters, I returned in 1646 and raised forces to retake St. Mary’s City. The fighting was bitter, but at last we drove out Ingle and Claiborne’s men. Order was restored, and Maryland once again came under the Proprietor’s authority. Yet the scars of the Plundering Time remained, for it had shown how fragile our colony truly was.

The Legacy of Violence

The Plundering Time was more than a rebellion; it was a test of Maryland’s experiment in peace. It proved that religious and political divisions could be exploited to destroy harmony and bring ruin. Though we regained control, the memory of that violent period haunted us. It was a warning that our survival depended on constant vigilance and a commitment to law, for without them Maryland could not endure.

The Fall of St. Mary’s City and the Rise of Annapolis – Told by Leonard Calvert

The Birth of St. Mary’s City

When we first landed in 1634, it was St. Mary’s City that became our home. Built upon land purchased from the Yaocomico, it was our capital, our refuge, and the symbol of Maryland’s beginning. From its fields and simple timber houses, the colony grew. For many years it stood as the heart of Maryland, a place where Protestants and Catholics alike tried to live in peace.

Years of Conflict and Decline

Yet St. Mary’s City was never free from turmoil. Rebellion, religious strife, and the upheavals of England’s wars weakened its foundations. Time and again, the town was caught in the struggles between Protestants and Catholics, each side seeking to claim authority. The Plundering Time left scars, and later the Protestant Revolution of 1689 struck a lasting blow. When Catholic leadership was overthrown, St. Mary’s, so closely tied to the Calverts and their vision, lost its place of honor.

The Shift of Power

By the end of the seventeenth century, the leaders of Maryland sought a new capital. They turned their eyes northward, to a place along the Severn River called Providence, settled earlier by Puritans. In 1694, this town was chosen as the new center of government and renamed Annapolis, in honor of Princess Anne of England. With this move, the colony declared its new Protestant identity and left behind the memory of its Catholic beginnings.

Annapolis Ascends

Annapolis grew quickly, becoming not only a political capital but a thriving port. Its location allowed for greater trade, and its streets soon filled with fine homes, shops, and taverns. It was here that the royal governors ruled, and here that Maryland found its new voice in the affairs of empire. St. Mary’s faded into quiet fields and ruins, while Annapolis rose as the symbol of Maryland’s future.

A Colony Transformed

The fall of St. Mary’s City and the rise of Annapolis mark more than a change of capitals. They reveal how Maryland itself evolved beyond its founding vision. What began as a Catholic refuge became, through conflict and compromise, a firmly Protestant colony aligned with the power of England. Yet the memory of St. Mary’s lingered, a reminder of our earliest hopes and our struggles to preserve freedom of conscience.

The Legacy of Two Capitals

I cannot help but see the story of these two towns as the story of Maryland itself. St. Mary’s was the fragile experiment, daring and hopeful, but bound to the past. Annapolis was the new order, prosperous and firmly tied to empire. Between them lies the tale of a colony that changed with the times, adapting to survive, and leaving behind both triumphs and regrets.

The Conflict with Virginia over Boundaries and Power – Told by Cecilius Calvert

When Maryland was founded in 1632, Virginia had already been established for more than twenty years. Its leaders believed they had the right to dominate the entire Chesapeake, and they viewed my charter as an intrusion into their sphere of influence. From the start, our presence was met with suspicion and resentment. The Virginians saw us not as partners in the New World but as rivals who threatened their trade, their land, and their authority.

The Case of William Claiborne

The first and most persistent source of conflict came from William Claiborne, a Virginian trader who had established a profitable post on Kent Island before Maryland was granted. When my brother Leonard, as governor, claimed Kent Island under our charter, Claiborne resisted fiercely. He refused to recognize Maryland’s authority, insisting that Virginia alone held dominion over the Chesapeake. This dispute led to skirmishes on the water and years of bitterness that never fully healed.

Competing Visions of Authority

At the heart of the conflict was the question of power. My charter gave me proprietary rights nearly equal to a king’s within Maryland, but Virginians believed their colony should hold sway over all nearby settlements. They resented the freedom and autonomy Maryland enjoyed and feared our example might weaken their control. The Chesapeake was large enough for both colonies, but pride and ambition fueled disputes that often turned violent.

Trade and Tobacco Rivalry

Both colonies relied on tobacco as their economic lifeblood, and competition for markets sharpened our differences. Virginia saw Maryland as a rival that could weaken its profits. Traders moved between our waters, sometimes without license, and accusations of smuggling or unfair advantage deepened the hostility. Instead of sharing the wealth of the bay, each colony sought to control it, and tension grew with every passing year.

Enduring Tensions

The disputes with Virginia never truly ended in my lifetime. Though battles over Kent Island were eventually settled, mistrust lingered. The Virginians never forgave Maryland’s independence, and Maryland never forgot Virginia’s attempts to crush us. These early conflicts showed how fragile colonial borders were and how easily ambition and trade could turn neighbors into enemies.

Maryland’s Resolve

In the end, the conflict with Virginia tested our determination to survive as a separate colony. We stood our ground, defended our charter, and proved that Maryland would not be swallowed by its older and more powerful neighbor. Though the Chesapeake bound us together, it also divided us, and our struggle with Virginia became part of the story of Maryland’s fight to define its own identity.

Maryland’s Legacy in Religious Freedom – Told by George Calvert, Cecilius Calvert, Leonard Calvert, and Margaret Brent

George Calvert: The Vision: When I first imagined Maryland, I dreamed of a land where conscience would not be chained. England had taught me the pain of persecution, and I wanted a place where Catholics and Protestants alike could live in peace. Though my days ended before I saw the charter granted, I believed that planting the seed of toleration in new soil might give it a chance to grow. My vision was fragile, but it began a conversation that would outlast me.

Cecilius Calvert: The Law: As Proprietor, I built upon my father’s vision by shaping Maryland’s laws. The Act of Toleration of 1649 was far from perfect—it extended freedom only to Christians—but it was remarkable for its time. At a moment when Europe bled from wars of faith, Maryland declared that no man should be punished for worshiping Christ in his own way. This principle, though often broken in practice, showed that law could protect conscience. In this, we foreshadowed the values that later took root in America’s founding documents.

Leonard Calvert: The Practice: In the early years of St. Mary’s City, I saw how delicate that balance was. Catholics and Protestants worked side by side in the fields, traded in the markets, and knelt in their separate chapels. Peace was not always steady, but it was possible. The willingness to live together, even amid suspicion, kept the colony alive. Maryland proved that diversity of faith need not mean destruction, and that was a lesson carried forward.

Margaret Brent: The Defense: I witnessed firsthand how fragile freedom was. After Leonard’s death, when soldiers threatened rebellion, I used his estate to secure their loyalty and preserve order. Without stability, there can be no freedom. My petitions for authority, though denied, were also part of this struggle: they showed that liberty must be defended not only for men but for women, too. The fight for equality of conscience and voice was greater than any single moment, and I believe Maryland opened that path, however imperfectly.

A Shared Reflection: Together, our lives tell a story of vision, law, practice, and defense. Maryland’s experiment in toleration was tested by rebellion, weakened by prejudice, and at times overturned. Yet it left a mark. Later generations, when shaping the United States, drew upon the idea that no government should dictate belief. The First Amendment’s promise of religious freedom echoes what we struggled to begin.

Maryland’s Gift: Though we were flawed, Maryland’s legacy lies in proving that freedom of conscience could be more than a dream. What began in our colony as an experiment became a principle of a nation. The promise that every man and woman might worship without fear was sown in Maryland’s soil, and from there, it grew into the heart of America.