1. Heroes and Villains of the Industrial Revolution - Pre-Industrial Society: Agrarian Economy & Cottage Industries

Maria Theresa: The Empress Who Would Not Yield

The winter of 1717 in Vienna was bitterly cold, yet inside the grand halls of the Hofburg Palace, warmth and celebration filled the air. Archduchess Maria Theresa Walburga Amalia Christina was born to Emperor Charles VI and Empress Elisabeth Christine of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel. She was their first surviving child, and though her father adored her, there was one undeniable problem—she was a girl.

At the time, the Holy Roman Empire was a realm where men ruled, and women were expected to govern only from the shadows. Yet Charles VI was determined that his daughter would inherit his vast dominions, so he issued the Pragmatic Sanction—a decree declaring that Maria Theresa could succeed him. He spent much of his reign persuading European rulers to recognize her as his heir. But politics, like war, is treacherous, and Charles never realized how fragile his daughter’s claim truly was.

A Throne in Peril

When Charles VI died in 1740, the world changed for the 23-year-old Maria Theresa. She had been prepared for queenship, but not for the storm that followed. Within months, her father's so-called allies turned against her. Prussia’s King Frederick II, young and ambitious, seized Silesia, one of Austria’s richest provinces, claiming that a woman could not defend such a vast empire.

One by one, claimants arose, challenging her rule. The War of Austrian Succession (1740–1748) engulfed Europe. France, Bavaria, Spain, and Saxony allied against her, while only Britain and Hungary supported her claim. The newly crowned Holy Roman Emperor, Charles VII of Bavaria, attempted to strip her of her lands.

Yet Maria Theresa was no ordinary sovereign. She rode before the Hungarian nobles, draped in mourning black, holding her infant son Joseph in her arms. Her voice rang with desperation, but her words burned with determination."I have come to you not as a queen but as a mother begging for the protection of her children."

Moved by her bravery, the Hungarian nobles drew their swords and shouted, "We will die for our queen!"

The Warrior Queen

Maria Theresa proved her mettle as a ruler. Despite the betrayal, she fought fiercely and reclaimed much of her lands. Though she was forced to cede Silesia to Prussia, she strengthened Austria, reformed its army, and modernized its government. She created new taxation systems, centralized administration, and curbed the power of nobles who had grown too independent.

In 1745, after years of war, her husband Francis I was elected Holy Roman Emperor, restoring some of her father’s legacy. Though Francis was technically the emperor, Maria Theresa ruled in practice—her mind sharper, her will stronger.

She was not just a queen, but a stateswoman who outmaneuvered kings. She would later forge an unlikely alliance with France, once her greatest enemy, through the marriage of her daughter Marie Antoinette to the French dauphin, Louis XVI.

A Mother to an Empire

Unlike many monarchs who viewed their people as mere subjects, Maria Theresa saw herself as their mother. She pushed for educational reforms, ensuring that even peasants received basic schooling. She improved healthcare, reduced serfdom, and sought to make her lands more just.

Her rule, however, was not without controversy. She was deeply religious and intolerant of religious minorities. She expelled the Jesuits and suppressed Protestant groups within her empire. Despite her great wisdom, she remained bound to the traditions of her time, refusing to recognize full religious tolerance.

She also ruled as a mother in the truest sense—giving birth to sixteen children. Many were married off to cement alliances, including her ill-fated daughter Marie Antoinette, whose future would take a tragic turn during the French Revolution.

A Queen’s Farewell

By 1780, Maria Theresa, once the indomitable empress, was weakened by illness. The loss of her beloved husband Francis I in 1765 had shattered her heart, and though she continued to rule alongside her son Joseph II, her body failed her.

As she lay in her final hours, she gathered her family around her, whispering blessings upon her children and her empire. She had spent her life fighting for Austria, for her people, and for the legacy of her father. With one final breath, she closed her eyes, knowing that she had done what few rulers ever could—secured a dynasty, strengthened an empire, and defied history as a woman who ruled in a man's world.

Her son Joseph II would continue her reforms, though with a more radical touch. Yet, none could deny that Maria Theresa of Austria had been one of the greatest monarchs Europe had ever known.

A Sovereign’s Duty to the Land and Its People

My name is Maria Theresa, you know my backstory, but let me tell you about what I am truly passionate about, my people and the people around the globe.

When my father, Emperor Charles VI, passed from this world, he left me not only a vast empire but also a land burdened by war – especially after the War of Austrian Succession - inefficient governance, and a people struggling beneath the weight of outdated systems. My throne was not secure, my lands were under attack, and my enemies—both foreign and domestic—believed I would fail. But an empress does not yield to despair; she rises to meet the challenges of her time. Among my greatest responsibilities was to strengthen Austria from within, ensuring that its fields were fertile, its people prosperous, and its future secure.

Reforming Agriculture: The Bread of the Empire

The wealth of a nation does not come from gold alone, but from the fields, the harvests, and the hands that work the soil. When I ascended the throne, Austria’s agricultural system was suffering. The traditional ways of farming were inefficient, and too much land lay barren due to outdated practices. I saw the need for change, and so I set forth on a course of agricultural reform that would bring prosperity to my people.

I encouraged the introduction of new crops, such as the potato and maize, which could provide more sustenance to my subjects, even in times of hardship. I established model farms to educate landowners and farmers alike on modern techniques, including improved crop rotation and better livestock breeding. Furthermore, I ordered land surveys to assess soil quality and distribution, ensuring that more fertile lands could be properly cultivated rather than wasted.

To protect the farmers from unjust taxation, I introduced agrarian laws that regulated the responsibilities of both landlords and peasants. My goal was simple: a stronger agricultural base meant a stronger Austria. Without food, an empire cannot stand.

Easing the Burden of Serfdom

One of the greatest injustices I inherited was the plight of the serfs—those poor souls bound to the land, toiling endlessly under the dominion of the noble class. Their labor sustained the great estates, yet they lived in poverty and subjugation, with little hope of advancement. I could not, in good conscience, allow my people to remain in such bondage.

Though abolishing serfdom entirely was beyond my immediate power, I took steps to reduce its cruelty. I enacted laws that limited the amount of forced labor (robot) required of peasants, ensuring that they could spend more time working for their own families rather than endlessly toiling for their lords. I also granted serfs the right to petition the government if they suffered mistreatment, a measure that angered the nobility but pleased the common folk.

Additionally, I sought to secure their land rights, so that they might cultivate their own plots rather than remain forever dependent on their landlords. My son, Joseph II, would go on to complete this work by officially abolishing serfdom, but I take pride in having laid the foundation for this progress.

Educating the Masses: The Light of Knowledge

A ruler may enact laws, fight wars, and build grand palaces, but no legacy is as lasting as an educated people. When I looked upon my empire, I saw too many of my subjects—especially among the peasantry—who could not read or write. How could Austria prosper if only the nobility and clergy held the keys to knowledge?

Thus, I issued the School Reform of 1774, declaring that education was no longer a privilege, but a right. Under my decree, compulsory schooling was established for both boys and girls, ensuring that even the poorest child could learn the fundamentals of reading, writing, and arithmetic. Schools were founded throughout my lands, and I ordered the training of teachers, for what use is a school without those who can impart wisdom?

Beyond the peasantry, I reformed higher education, strengthening universities and ensuring that subjects such as law, medicine, and economics were taught with greater rigor. I particularly expanded medical education, for I believed that a nation’s strength depended not just on its military but on the health of its people.

It is true that not all welcomed these reforms. Many among the nobility resented the idea of peasants gaining knowledge, fearing that education would breed defiance. But I believed otherwise. I believed that an educated people make a strong nation, one that is wise enough to govern itself and protect its future.

A Legacy of Reform

Some rulers measure their reigns by the conquests they make or the battles they win. I, Maria Theresa, measure mine by the seeds I planted—not only in the soil of Austria but in the minds and hearts of my people. Agriculture, justice for the peasantry, and education—these were the pillars of a greater Austria, an Austria that would endure beyond my reign.

Though I have faced wars and betrayals, though I have known grief and struggle, I take comfort in knowing that I leave behind a people more prosperous, a land more fertile, and a future more enlightened.

This is my story, and this is my Austria.

Global - Subsistence Farming vs. Commercial Farming: Told By Theresa

Throughout my reign, I have witnessed the importance of agriculture in sustaining my empire. Yet, as I looked beyond Austria's borders, I saw that different lands and peoples approached farming in ways that reflected their resources, climates, and economies. There is a great divide between those who farm only to survive and those who cultivate the land to trade and build wealth. This divide exists not only in my lands but across the world.

The Struggles of Subsistence Farming

In many regions of my empire, particularly in the rural countryside of Hungary, Bohemia, and Galicia, the majority of peasants practiced subsistence farming. This meant that they grew only what they needed to survive, with little surplus to trade. Their farms were small, their tools primitive, and their yields entirely dependent on the whims of nature. A poor harvest did not simply mean less profit—it meant starvation.

I saw this suffering with my own eyes. A long winter, a summer drought, or a sudden pest infestation could spell disaster for an entire village. In such communities, knowledge was passed down from father to son, but innovations in farming remained rare and slow to spread. Without education, without access to better tools, and without protection from exploitative landlords, these humble farmers remained trapped in a cycle of poverty.

Yet, subsistence farming was not unique to Austria. In the vast lands of Russia, the serfs labored under similar conditions, bound to the estates of noble landowners, with little hope of owning land of their own. In India, ruled by the Mughal Empire and later the British, millions of farmers toiled under harsh conditions, growing crops primarily to sustain themselves, while outside rulers took the wealth of the land. Even in the distant lands of China, the great rice paddies sustained the masses, but farming remained a laborious task, dependent on backbreaking human effort rather than innovation.

The Rise of Commercial Farming in Europe

While my peasantry struggled under the weight of subsistence farming, I saw a different model developing in Western Europe—one that would shape the future. In lands such as England, the Netherlands, and parts of France, landowners were beginning to farm not just for survival, but for trade.

The Enclosure Movement in England had begun turning small peasant plots into large, profitable estates, where crops were grown not for the farmer’s table, but for the market. This allowed for greater investment in better plows, crop rotation methods, and improved breeding of livestock. In the Netherlands, merchants took advantage of their fertile land to grow grains, dairy, and cash crops, which were shipped to other European markets for profit.

I admired these advancements and sought to modernize Austrian agriculture in response. I encouraged the use of new crops such as potatoes and maize, which could feed more people on less land. I promoted the education of farmers, introducing techniques that would improve soil quality and increase yields. However, I knew that my reforms could only go so far—without economic freedom for my peasants, true commercial farming in Austria remained limited.

The New World and Plantation Agriculture

Far across the ocean, in the colonies of the Americas, another form of commercial farming was taking root—one that horrified and fascinated me at once. In places like Brazil, the Caribbean, and the American South, vast plantations were established, producing cash crops such as sugar, tobacco, and cotton for European markets. These were not the farms of my Austrian peasants; they were enormous operations, run by wealthy landowners and worked by enslaved peoples, forcibly taken from Africa.

Though the profits from these plantations flowed into the coffers of Spain, Portugal, France, and Britain, I could not help but shudder at the suffering upon which they were built. These lands were not worked by families tilling the soil to survive, but by enslaved laborers, whose sweat and pain fueled the economies of empires. It was a system entirely foreign to my own lands, where serfdom—though unjust—at least bound lords and peasants to mutual obligations.

The Future of Agriculture

As I reflect upon these differences, I wonder what the future holds for agriculture across the world. I have done what I could to strengthen my empire’s farming practices, introducing new crops, regulating serfdom, and encouraging education. Yet, I know that true change must come gradually, with wisdom and patience.

One thing is clear: subsistence farming alone cannot sustain a great nation. To grow, to prosper, to defend itself in times of war, an empire must develop trade, improve agricultural methods, and embrace innovation. My Austria, with its vast fields and hardworking people, must not fall behind. I hope that one day, my reforms will be remembered not only for the crops they yielded but for the future they planted.

The Science of the Soil: Farming Methods Across the World: Told by Theresa

As ruler of a vast and diverse empire, I have long understood that the strength of a nation lies in its fields and farms. Without fertile land and skilled farmers, no kingdom can flourish. In my years of governing, I have sought to improve the agricultural methods of Austria, learning from both tradition and innovation. Across the world, I have seen many methods of farming—some ancient, others new—all of which reveal the ingenuity of mankind in the face of nature’s challenges.

The Three-Field System: An Old Tradition of the European Fields

For centuries, the farmers of Europe have relied upon the Three-Field System, a method that balances the need for food production with the preservation of soil fertility. In this system, farmland is divided into three sections, each serving a different purpose over the course of the year:

1. One field is planted with grains such as wheat or rye, which provide food for the people.

2. The second field is planted with legumes such as peas, beans, or barley, which help restore the nutrients in the soil while also providing fodder for livestock.

3. The third field is left fallow, meaning it is not planted at all, allowing the soil to rest and regain its fertility.

This system has been the foundation of peasant life across Austria, France, Germany, and beyond. It ensures that the land is not overworked, while still providing a steady yield. Yet, despite its effectiveness, the Three-Field System leaves much land unused each year. As a ruler seeking to strengthen my empire, I have looked to newer methods to improve upon this practice.

The Four-Field Crop Rotation System: A New Advancement in Crop Rotation

Across the English countryside, I have seen a more advanced method of farming take root: the Four-Field Crop Rotation System, promoted by English landowners such as Charles Townshend. This method, unlike the Three-Field System, allows land to be used continuously, without leaving any field fallow. This system divides farmland into four sections, rotating crops in a way that enriches the soil rather than depleting it:

1. First year: Wheat is planted, which takes nitrogen from the soil.

2. Second year: Turnips are grown, whose deep roots help break up the soil and prevent nutrient depletion.

3. Third year: Barley is planted, providing grain while preparing the land for the final stage.

4. Fourth year: Clover and grasses are planted, restoring the nitrogen in the soil while feeding livestock.

This method is superior to the Three-Field System, as it prevents soil exhaustion while increasing food production. More crops mean more food for the people, stronger livestock, and a more prosperous nation. I have encouraged my farmers to adopt these practices, though change comes slowly in rural villages.

Farming Traditions Beyond Europe: Methods from Other Lands

While these methods have sustained Europe, I know that in other parts of the world, different systems have long been in use, each suited to its unique climate and geography.

1. The Rice Paddy Fields of China and Japan

In the lands of the Far East, where rice is the staple crop, farmers have mastered the art of flooded agriculture. In China and Japan, I have heard of great terraced rice paddies, where fields are carefully carved into hillsides, allowing water to flow between them. These methods have been perfected over centuries, ensuring that the soil remains fertile and that multiple harvests per year are possible.

2. The Chinampa System of the Aztecs

Far across the sea, in the lands of the New World, the Aztec civilization once used a remarkable system known as Chinampas—floating gardens built upon shallow lake beds. These artificial islands, enriched with fertile mud from the water, allowed the Aztecs to grow crops even in areas where farmland was scarce. Though the Spanish have now taken these lands, I wonder what lessons could be learned from such ingenuity.

3. The Slash-and-Burn Farming of Africa and the Americas

In the dense jungles of Africa and the Americas, I have heard of another practice: slash-and-burn agriculture. Here, farmers clear forests by burning the vegetation, using the ash to fertilize the soil. While this method provides fertile land for a short time, it is not sustainable, as the soil loses its nutrients quickly.

The Future of Agriculture: A Queen’s Vision

It is my belief that the future of my empire—and of all great nations—rests upon the improvement of farming techniques. The Three-Field System has served Europe well, but the Four-Field Crop Rotation holds greater promise. Likewise, the study of other civilizations may reveal valuable lessons that can be adapted to Austrian lands.

I have worked to introduce potatoes and maize, which grow well in poor soil and will help sustain my people in times of hardship. I have encouraged the use of better plows, improved breeding of livestock, and education for farmers. If we can embrace change while respecting tradition, we shall ensure that Austria remains strong, well-fed, and prosperous for generations to come.

The Land and Its Keepers: Feudal vs. Tenant Farming in Europe vs. United States

Throughout my reign, I have come to understand that land is power, and those who own it control not only their wealth but the fate of the people who work it. The land sustains life, feeds nations, and determines who shall prosper and who shall struggle. Yet, the way land is owned and worked differs greatly between the Old World of Europe and the emerging lands of the American colonies.

I have ruled over an empire where land ownership is deeply tied to nobility, feudal traditions, and ancient obligations. But across the Atlantic, a new system has begun to take root—one where land is granted more freely, and men farm not as serfs, but as independent landowners.

Feudal Land Ownership in Europe: The Noble Lords and Their Peasants

In my lands, and across much of Europe, land is not simply bought and sold like a common good. It is inherited, granted by royal decree, or seized through conquest. The structure of land ownership has long been dictated by feudal traditions, where great lords control vast estates, and those who work the land do so under rigid social hierarchies.

Under feudalism, the land is divided into estates or manors, owned by nobles, bishops, or the crown. The people who farm these lands—serfs and peasants—do not own their plots but instead are bound by duty to their lord. They provide labor, crops, and military service in exchange for protection and the right to live on the land. But this system has brought much hardship, for these farmers have little freedom to improve their lives. They cannot leave their land, nor can they pass it freely to their heirs.

In my empire, I have sought to ease the burdens of the serfs, introducing laws that limit forced labor (robot) and granting them small rights to their land. Yet, I know that true freedom from this system is slow to come. The noble class resists change, for land is their greatest wealth, and with wealth comes power.

Tenant Farming in Europe: The Halfway Measure

Beyond serfdom, another system has emerged in parts of France, England, and the Netherlands—tenant farming. Here, peasants do not work as bound serfs but instead rent their land from landlords, paying either in crops, money, or labor. While this grants them more freedom than serfs, it still leaves them at the mercy of landowners who may increase rents, demand more produce, or evict them at will.

Many tenant farmers struggle to survive, for they must give much of their harvest to their landlords before feeding their own families. And yet, this system allows for some upward mobility. A successful tenant farmer might save enough to purchase his own small plot, escaping the grip of feudal lords.

Land Ownership in the United States: A New World, A New System

Across the Atlantic Ocean, in the American colonies, a different vision of land ownership has taken shape. In these vast lands, where forests stretch endlessly and rivers run wild, the European traditions of feudal landholding have not taken root as they have in my Austria. Instead, land is granted in large tracts to settlers who wish to work it for themselves.

Unlike in Europe, where land is controlled by nobles and passed down through aristocratic families, in the American colonies, a man may own his farm outright, owing no labor or crops to a noble lord. He may pass it freely to his children, sell it if he chooses, and work it as he sees fit. This system is one of freedom, but also of risk, for with ownership comes responsibility. If his crops fail, he has no lord to turn to for protection—he must fend for himself.

Yet, even in this land of opportunity, inequality remains. Large estates, particularly in the southern colonies, are owned by wealthy plantation families, while poor farmers struggle to claim smaller plots. In these plantations, labor is not performed by serfs or tenants, but by enslaved Africans, whose suffering mirrors that of the serfs of Europe, though without even the small protections that feudal laws once provided.

The Future of Land Ownership

As I look to the future, I see that Europe clings to its traditions, while America experiments with new ideas. The feudal system is weakening, but the nobility still resists change. My efforts to ease the burdens of serfs and tenant farmers may not bring immediate freedom, but they are a step toward a more just society.

One day, perhaps, Europe will learn from the New World, embracing a system where land is not just for the noble-born, but for any man willing to work it. Until then, I shall continue my efforts to balance the needs of tradition and reform, ensuring that those who till the soil do not do so in chains, but with hope for a better future. For what is an empire, if not the land it rests upon and the people who labor to sustain it?

Cottage Industries & Early Manufacturing: Told by Theresa

The strength of a nation lies not only in its fields and harvests but also in the hands of its craftsmen and weavers. While my empire, like much of Europe, has long been an agrarian society, I have come to see that the future of prosperity does not rest solely in farming, but in the industry that is beginning to take shape in our towns and villages.

Before great factories and spinning machines, before the roar of furnaces and the march of mechanized labor, there were the cottage industries—the humble workshops of our people, where families worked not for lords, but for themselves. It is here, in these simple homes, that the foundations of industry and commerce were laid.

The Cottage Industry: Labor Within the Home

Throughout my empire, and across Europe, cottage industries have long been a way for peasants and townspeople alike to earn a livelihood beyond farming. In these small workshops—often no more than a room in a peasant’s home—entire families spin wool and flax into thread, weave cloth upon wooden looms, forge tools in small smithies, and craft pottery for local markets.

This system is simple yet effective. A merchant supplies the raw materials—whether wool, flax, or cotton—to the household, which then spins, weaves, or dyes the fabric. When the work is complete, the merchant returns, purchasing the finished goods and selling them at market. This way, even the poorest families can contribute to the economy, earning money without leaving their villages.

The cottage industry thrives in places like Bohemia, Saxony, and the Netherlands, where skilled artisans work tirelessly to produce textiles, lace, and metal goods. It has allowed my people to supplement their incomes during the long winter months, when the fields lay dormant, and has helped to create a trade network that extends beyond local markets and into the wider European economy.

The Growth of Early Manufacturing: Beyond the Home

While cottage industries remain at the heart of production, I have seen the beginnings of something new and powerful—the rise of early manufacturing, where production is not confined to homes, but brought together under one roof.

In England and the Low Countries, wealthy merchants have begun organizing labor in large workshops, bringing together spinners, weavers, and dyers under one establishment. These early forms of proto-factories allow for greater efficiency and higher production, reducing costs while increasing the volume of goods that can be sold.

My own government has sought to encourage textile production, granting privileges to skilled weavers and importing the finest looms from abroad. In Vienna and Prague, silk workshops have begun to appear, competing with the famous fabrics of France and Italy.

Challenges and the Limits of Early Industry

Yet, despite these advancements, early manufacturing faces many obstacles. Roads are poorly built, making it difficult to transport goods efficiently. Peasants are still bound to feudal obligations, preventing them from seeking better wages in towns. And, most importantly, power remains reliant on human and animal labor, limiting the scale of production.

In England, I hear of new machines—such as John Kay’s Flying Shuttle—that allow for faster weaving, but they are not yet common in my empire. Likewise, in the Americas, vast amounts of raw cotton are being grown on plantations, promising an abundance of material that could fuel a greater textile industry in Europe.

The Future of Industry

As I look to the years ahead, I see a world where manufacturing will no longer be confined to homes and small workshops, but will expand into something greater—where machines, organization, and innovation will replace the slow toil of hand labor.

I have worked to support these early industries by encouraging education in craftsmanship, regulating trade practices, and investing in improved infrastructure. But I also know that with industry comes change—change that will challenge the traditional ways of life.

For now, the cottage industries remain the backbone of production, allowing families to work with independence and dignity. Yet, I foresee a time when the small weaver’s loom will give way to the power of machines, and the simple village smith will be replaced by vast forges producing tools and weapons on an unprecedented scale.

What remains to be seen is whether this progress will uplift the people or burden them under the weight of new masters—masters not of noble blood, but of industry and wealth.

It is a future I shall not live to see in full, but one that is already taking shape before my eyes.

How Families Worked Together in Pre-Industrial Society: Told by Theresa

As ruler of Austria and its vast lands, I have often looked beyond the grand halls of my palaces and seen the true foundation of my empire—the families who labor together, bound not only by blood but by the demands of survival. In our pre-industrial world, the family is not merely a place of love and kinship; it is the center of work, learning, and duty, where each member has a role to play in ensuring the well-being of all.

While nobles and scholars write of politics and philosophy, it is the farmers, craftsmen, and merchants who sustain society. And at the heart of it all is the family, where husbands and wives, parents and children, even extended relatives work together as one.

The Household as the Center of Work

Unlike the world of great factories and bustling cities that I foresee in the future, our present time is one where the household is the primary place of labor. Whether in the fields, workshops, or small trading stalls, families do not work separately but as a unit, each member contributing according to their strength and skill.

• On the farms, the men till the fields, plow the land, and handle the heavier work of harvesting. Women tend to gardens, animals, and dairy, ensuring that food is plentiful. Children, from the earliest age, assist their parents—feeding livestock, collecting eggs, gathering firewood, and watching over younger siblings. Even the elderly, too frail for hard labor, contribute by spinning wool, sewing clothes, or preparing meals.

• In the cottage industries, where textiles, pottery, and iron goods are made, every pair of hands is needed. Women and children spin thread and weave cloth, while men handle the more strenuous work of dyeing and finishing garments. Young boys are apprenticed to their fathers in blacksmithing, carpentry, or shoemaking, learning a trade that will one day support their own families.

• In the merchant class, families work side by side to run shops and market stalls. Wives manage accounts while husbands negotiate trade. Sons are sent to learn bookkeeping or sailing, and daughters often assist in selling goods, ensuring that the business remains within the family for generations.

The Role of Women: Keepers of Home and Trade

Though some may say that a woman’s place is in the home, I know well that women are the backbone of society. Without their labor, neither farm nor workshop nor kingdom could function.

Women do not simply bear children and cook meals. They are the healers, the weavers, the dairy keepers, and sometimes even the traders. Many noblewomen manage vast estates in their husbands' absence, overseeing accounts, ensuring harvests are collected, and settling disputes among tenant farmers.

Even among the peasantry, a wife’s work is never done. She may rise before dawn to bake bread, milk cows, spin wool, weave cloth, tend the garden, care for children, and mend clothing—all before evening falls. And in the towns, women often run taverns, apothecaries, and small businesses, playing a vital role in the economic life of their communities.

Children: Workers from an Early Age

Unlike the noble children of my court, who are tutored in Latin and history, the children of the common folk do not have the luxury of long schooling. They are workers almost as soon as they can walk, for in a world where survival depends on labor, every hand is needed.

• By age five or six, children are already expected to help—fetching water, gathering kindling, watching younger siblings, and tending small livestock.

• By ten or twelve, boys are working in the fields or training under a master craftsman, while girls are learning to spin, sew, and prepare meals.

• By their teenage years, they are fully part of the household’s workforce, and often preparing for marriage, where they will begin this cycle anew.

Yet, despite the demands of labor, families find moments of joy. Festivals, weddings, and church gatherings bring people together, offering respite from toil and a chance for storytelling, music, and laughter.

Society at Large: A Web of Obligation and Duty

Beyond the household, society itself is structured like a great chain, where each class and profession serves a purpose in maintaining order. Unlike the independent landowners of the American colonies, our European world is one of obligations, duties, and hierarchies.

• The nobles hold land and provide protection, though I have sought to limit their excessive control over peasants.

• The clergy provide spiritual guidance and education, though too often they are drawn into politics.

• The artisans and merchants sustain trade and commerce, ensuring that my cities and towns grow prosperous.

• The peasants, the largest class, labor in the fields and workshops, supporting all above them with their sweat and toil.

This order is fragile, and I have spent much of my reign seeking to strengthen the rights of the peasantry, encourage commerce, and support manufacturing. But one thing remains unchanged—it is the family that upholds the foundation of society.

The Future: Change on the Horizon

As I reflect upon my reign, I wonder how the world will change in the years to come. Already, I see the rise of large-scale production, the movement of people to cities, and the decline of the feudal way of life. Will families continue to work together as they have for centuries? Or will they be torn apart by the demands of industry, with men and women laboring not at home, but in factories?

For now, the household remains strong, a pillar of work, learning, and survival. It is the glue that holds the empire together, and I shall do all I can to protect and strengthen it. For what is a kingdom, if not an extension of the family itself?

Early Trade Networks: The Foundations of Commerce

Commerce is the lifeblood of a nation. It fuels prosperity, strengthens alliances, and ensures that no kingdom, no matter how vast, is isolated from the world. As ruler of Austria, I have seen how the efforts of artisans, merchants, and traders shape the economy, just as surely as the labor of farmers sustains the people.

Yet, commerce is not a matter of chance—it is built upon systems of regulation, organization, and networks of trade that stretch across borders. These foundations were laid long before my reign, in the form of guilds and early trade routes, and they continue to evolve as my empire enters an age of change.

The Guilds: Protectors of Craft and Trade

In the towns and cities of Europe, guilds stand as the guardians of craftsmanship and quality. They are not merely groups of workers, but powerful institutions that dictate how trade and production function. For centuries, they have ensured that artisans—from weavers and blacksmiths to bakers and masons—produce goods of high quality, follow established methods, and protect the rights of their members. Guilds have strict structures:

• Masters, who have proven their skill and own their workshops.

• Journeymen, skilled workers who travel between towns to perfect their craft.

• Apprentices, young boys who spend years learning under a master before they can rise in rank.

A guild member does not simply make goods—he must follow the rules of the guild, ensuring that no craftsman undercuts another with unfair prices or poor workmanship. While this protects the integrity of the craft, it also limits innovation. A weaver, for example, cannot adopt new methods unless the guild approves, and merchants must abide by strict regulations on trade.

Though guilds have long controlled European towns, I have seen their power begin to wane. In places like England and the Netherlands, merchants seek freedom from guild restrictions, preferring open competition over regulation. Some say this will bring greater prosperity, while others fear it will lead to low wages and unchecked greed.

Trade Networks: The Highways of Commerce

Trade does not stop at the borders of my empire. Goods flow across lands and seas, creating vast networks of commerce that connect distant civilizations. My merchants engage in trade not only within Austria and the Holy Roman Empire, but also with the great markets of Italy, France, Spain, and the Ottoman lands.

• The Hanseatic League, which once dominated trade in the North and Baltic Seas, still thrives, linking Germany, Scandinavia, and the Low Countries.

• The Mediterranean Trade Routes bring silks from the East, spices from the Levant, and wines from Italy and Spain.

• Overland routes across Poland and Russia carry furs, amber, and timber, connecting Europe with the vast markets of Muscovy.

• The Atlantic trade, driven by the Spanish, Portuguese, and British, brings gold and silver from the Americas, reshaping the European economy.

These trade networks are vital to our wealth, but they are also sources of conflict. Nations go to war over trade monopolies, pirates prowl the shipping lanes, and merchants compete ruthlessly for control of goods.

The Global Economy: A World in Transition

While Europe thrives on its commerce, I cannot ignore the economic transformations happening across the world.

• In the Ottoman Empire, great markets in Istanbul, Cairo, and Aleppo remain hubs of trade, linking Europe with Persia, India, and beyond. Yet, I sense that their dominance is fading, as European ships bypass the old caravan routes in favor of direct sea trade.

• In India, the Mughal Empire’s textile industry produces the finest cottons and silks, which are highly sought after in Europe. Yet, British and Dutch traders are tightening their grip, taking control of ports and reshaping commerce in their favor.

• In China, the Qing Dynasty presides over a self-sufficient economy, producing porcelain, tea, and silk. They allow limited trade with Europeans, yet they are wary of outside influence.

• In the Americas, the Spanish and Portuguese extract gold, silver, sugar, and tobacco, feeding Europe’s growing appetite for luxury goods. However, much of this wealth is built upon forced labor and the suffering of enslaved peoples, something I find troubling.

The Future of Trade and Commerce

I have worked to strengthen Austria’s economy by encouraging domestic industry, regulating trade, and supporting merchants. I have sought to modernize farming, ensuring that food supplies remain stable, and I have tried to weaken the power of guilds where they stifle growth.

Yet, I know that change is coming. The old ways of trade—controlled by guilds, overseen by kings, and dependent on traditional routes—are giving way to new systems. The power of merchants and financiers is growing, and nations like Britain and France embrace free markets and new forms of production.

Shall my empire adapt, or shall it resist? That remains to be seen. But I know this—the economy of tomorrow will not be the economy of today. Those who prepare for change will prosper, and those who cling to the past will falter. For commerce, like the tides, does not stand still.

Technology & Tools Before Industrialization: Told by Theresa

The power of a ruler is measured not only by armies and laws but also by the tools and knowledge that advance society. In my time, I have seen that technology shapes the destiny of nations, and those who embrace innovation shall prosper, while those who resist change shall fall behind.

Though we do not yet live in an age of great machines or sprawling factories, I can see the signs of change before us. The tools and methods that have sustained Europe for centuries are beginning to evolve, and the progress made in agriculture, craftsmanship, and early manufacturing lays the foundation for a future where industry may one day transform the world.

Agricultural Innovations: Feeding the Growing Population

For centuries, farming has been the backbone of civilization, and the tools of agriculture have remained largely unchanged. Yet, in my reign, I have sought to introduce improvements that increase productivity and ensure that famine does not plague my people.

• The plow, once a simple wooden instrument, has been improved with iron, allowing farmers to cut deeper into the soil and plant more effectively.

• The seed drill, developed by the Englishman Jethro Tull, ensures that seeds are planted in neat rows rather than scattered by hand, increasing yield and reducing waste.

• The use of crop rotation, particularly the four-field system, has begun to spread, improving soil fertility and allowing more food to be grown year after year.

• The scythe and sickle, essential for harvesting, remain unchanged in form but have become more finely crafted, ensuring faster and more efficient labor.

These improvements mean that my subjects may one day see larger harvests, fewer years of hunger, and a healthier society. Yet, much of Europe still clings to the old ways, and I have worked tirelessly to encourage landowners and farmers alike to embrace new methods.

The Tools of the Artisan: Masters of Their Craft

Beyond the fields, it is in the workshops and guild halls that we see the hands of craftsmen shaping the world. Blacksmiths, carpenters, weavers, and masons continue to rely on hand tools passed down for generations, yet their skill and knowledge refine these tools with each passing year.

• The spinning wheel, long used to produce thread, is the foundation of our textile industry. Yet, in England, I hear whispers of a new device—the Spinning Jenny, capable of spinning multiple threads at once.

• Looms, once worked only by hand, are slowly becoming larger and more efficient, allowing weavers to produce more cloth than ever before.

• The printing press, perfected by Johannes Gutenberg centuries ago, has spread knowledge and learning across Europe, allowing ideas to flourish.

• Water mills and windmills, once used only for grinding grain, have begun to power early manufacturing, aiding in textile production and even metalworking.

These tools have not yet created great factories or vast networks of production, but they lay the groundwork for what is to come. I see merchants and inventors experimenting, pushing the limits of what is possible, and I know that in the years ahead, we shall see even greater advancements.

Metallurgy & Construction: Strengthening Cities and Armies

The power of a kingdom is also measured by the strength of its buildings, bridges, and weapons. Without metallurgy and construction, we cannot expand our cities, defend our borders, or ensure the safety of our people.

• Iron tools and weapons remain the backbone of my armies, yet I see the use of steel improving armor, swords, and firearms.

• Guns and cannons, once unreliable, have become more accurate and powerful, allowing for greater military strategy in war.

• Masonry and architecture have advanced, with baroque palaces, bridges, and roads connecting my empire like never before.

• Clocks and precision instruments, once rare and expensive, have begun to spread beyond noble courts and into the hands of scholars and merchants.

These advances fortify my empire, ensuring that Austria remains strong in battle and prosperous in peace.

Navigation & Trade: Expanding Beyond Borders

As commerce grows, so too does our need for better navigation and trade routes. Though Austria is a land-based empire, I watch as other nations expand their reach across the seas, using new technology to master the art of navigation.

• The magnetic compass, borrowed from the East, allows ships to sail farther without losing their way.

• Better cartography has given merchants more precise maps, helping them reach distant lands.

• Shipbuilding has improved, with larger and faster vessels such as the galleon, allowing for greater trade and exploration.

Though my empire does not command great fleets like Spain, Britain, or the Dutch, I recognize the importance of these advancements. Trade, knowledge, and wealth flow across the seas, shaping the balance of power in Europe.

The Future of Technology: A World on the Brink of Change

I have ruled in a time of transition, where the old ways of hand labor and simple tools still dominate, but the beginnings of industry and mechanization can be seen. The world is not yet ruled by machines, but I sense that day is coming.

I have encouraged progress where I can, supporting education, craftsmanship, and innovation, but I know that change is slow and met with resistance. Guilds wish to protect their traditions. Nobles fear that prosperity for the lower classes will weaken their own power. And yet, the march of progress cannot be stopped.

What will the world look like in a century? Will machines replace the hands of craftsmen? Will great cities be powered by unseen forces? I do not know, but I do know this—the seeds of change have already been planted, and the tools we wield today shall become the foundations of tomorrow’s industry. I can only hope that Austria, my beloved empire, will be ready for what is to come.

Transition to Industrialization: Handmade to Machine-Made: Told by Theresa

For centuries, the hands of my people have woven cloth, forged tools, and tilled the earth. Their craft and labor have been the foundation of my empire’s prosperity. But now, as I near the end of my reign, I see a great shift taking place—one that shall forever change the way goods are made, how people live, and how nations rise or fall.

The world is moving from handmade to machine-made, and though this change has not yet fully arrived in my lands, I can already feel the winds of industry beginning to stir.

The Slow Decline of the Cottage Industry

For generations, families have worked in their homes, producing textiles, tools, and household goods in small quantities. The cottage industry, where skilled hands spin thread and weave fabric within the home, has sustained many villages and given my people a source of income beyond the fields.

Yet, this system—once a great strength—is now struggling to compete with a new way of production. In places like England and the Netherlands, merchants have begun centralizing labor, bringing workers together in large workshops where goods can be produced faster and in greater numbers.

No longer must a merchant wait for a peasant woman to spin enough thread for a full order—machines are being created that can do the work of many hands at once. This is a troubling thought, for while it promises greater production and wealth, it also threatens the livelihood of countless artisans and craftsmen who have depended on traditional methods for generations.

The Rise of Machines: The First Steps Toward Industrialization

Though my empire remains rooted in traditional labor, I have watched as other nations experiment with new machines that increase production while reducing the need for human hands.

• In England, I hear of a man named John Kay, who has invented the Flying Shuttle, allowing weavers to create more cloth in half the time.

• Another, James Hargreaves, has built the Spinning Jenny, a device that allows a single worker to spin multiple threads at once.

• In ironworking, better blast furnaces and new puddling techniques are producing stronger metals, fueling improvements in tools, weapons, and infrastructure.

Though these machines have not yet reshaped all of Europe, I foresee a time when entire industries will be dominated by machines, and the pace of production will no longer be determined by the skill of a craftsman but by the power of a mechanical loom or an iron forge.

Factories: A New Way of Organizing Labor

The idea of bringing many workers together under one roof is not new—guilds have long maintained workshops where craftsmen labor side by side—but these new mechanized workplaces are unlike anything we have seen before.

In England, some merchants have begun using water-powered mills to operate spinning machines, creating a system where laborers do not work at home, but in large buildings designed for mass production. These early factories, though still rare, hint at what may become the future of industry.

This change fills me with both hope and concern. Will these new methods bring prosperity, or will they lead to hardship for those displaced by machines? Will traditional craftsmanship survive, or will it be replaced by soulless production? These are questions I cannot yet answer.

The Impact on Trade and Society

If industry spreads, the entire balance of trade will shift. Goods that once took weeks or months to make will be produced in mere days. Nations that embrace mechanization will gain economic and military power, while those that resist may fall behind.

• Textiles will flood the markets, forcing weavers to either adapt or abandon their trade.

• Weapons and tools will be forged in larger quantities, allowing nations to expand their armies and infrastructures faster than ever before.

• Urbanization will increase, as more people leave their farms and villages to seek work in these new centers of production.

I do not yet see this change fully in Austria, but I know that my descendants will face a world far different from the one I have ruled.

A Ruler’s Dilemma: Protect Tradition or Embrace Change?

As Empress, my duty has always been to protect the well-being of my people, ensuring that they have work, stability, and a future for their children. But how does one protect the people from progress itself?

If I resist industrialization, Austria may fall behind other nations, unable to compete with their greater production and trade. If I encourage it, I may disrupt the traditional way of life, bringing hardship to those who cannot adapt.

For now, I have worked to modernize agriculture, improve manufacturing, and support education, knowing that knowledge is the best preparation for change. But I know that the full force of industrialization is not mine to witness—it will be my children, and their children after them, who will live in this new world of machines.

The Future: A World Transformed

What will become of the world in a century? Will factories rise where villages once stood? Will machines replace men in every trade? Or will there still be places for the artisan, the farmer, and the craftsman who creates not for speed, but for beauty?

Though I do not know the answers, I do know this: the shift from handmade to machine-made has begun, and there is no turning back. The wheels of progress are in motion, and the world I have known is already giving way to the world that is to come.

The Global Events Shaping the Start of the Industrial Revolution: Told by Theresa

The world is changing, and though I have ruled for many years, I see that the future belongs to those who embrace progress. Across Europe and beyond, great events are unfolding—wars, discoveries, revolutions—that are shaping not only the fate of nations but the very foundation of how goods are made, how economies grow, and how societies function.

The Industrial Revolution is not yet fully upon us, but its seeds have been sown by the great transformations of my time. I watch with both hope and apprehension, knowing that these events shall shape a new world—one that will emerge long after I am gone.

The Scientific Revolution and the Age of Reason

Before any great change in industry, there must first be a change in thought. The Scientific Revolution, which began long before my reign, has laid the groundwork for the technological advancements now beginning to appear. Men like Galileo, Newton, and Leibniz have transformed how we understand the natural world, motion, energy, and mechanics.

• Newton’s Laws of Motion have influenced advancements in engineering and mechanics, laying the foundation for new machines and industrial tools.

• The study of chemistry and metallurgy has allowed for stronger metals, better tools, and improvements in construction and weaponry.

• The Age of Enlightenment, which flourished during my reign, has encouraged rational thinking, scientific experimentation, and innovation, inspiring inventors to question traditional methods and seek more efficient ways of working.

Without these great minds and their discoveries, the machines of industry could not have been conceived, let alone built.

The Agricultural Revolution: More Food, More People, More Workers

Throughout my reign, I have worked tirelessly to improve agriculture in my empire. But I am not alone in this endeavor—across Europe, landowners, scientists, and farmers have been experimenting with new techniques that have greatly increased food production.

• The Four-Field System, introduced in England, has eliminated the need for leaving land fallow, allowing for continuous crop production.

• New tools, such as the seed drill, ensure that seeds are planted efficiently, increasing yields and reducing waste.

• Selective breeding of livestock has resulted in stronger and larger animals, providing more meat, milk, and wool.

With more food available, the population is growing. And as populations grow, so does the demand for goods—creating a need for more efficient manufacturing methods. Furthermore, as farming becomes more productive, fewer people are needed to work the land, forcing many to seek employment elsewhere.

These displaced workers will not remain idle—they shall become the first laborers in the factories of the future.

The Rise of Global Trade and Colonial Empires

Trade has always been the foundation of wealth, but in my time, it has become truly global. Nations like Britain, France, Spain, and the Netherlands have expanded their colonial empires, bringing vast amounts of wealth, raw materials, and new markets into their economies.

• The Atlantic Trade has connected Europe, Africa, and the Americas, allowing for the exchange of goods, people, and ideas on an unprecedented scale.

• Raw materials from the colonies, such as cotton, sugar, tobacco, and spices, have fueled European economies, driving demand for more efficient processing and manufacturing techniques.

• The competition between empires has led to economic policies favoring industrial growth, as nations seek to outproduce and outtrade their rivals.

With such wealth flowing into Europe, the stage is set for investment in new technologies, machines, and industrial enterprises.

Wars and Their Role in Industrial Change

War, though tragic, has always been a driving force of innovation. In my reign, I have seen the War of Austrian Succession and the Seven Years’ War, great conflicts that have reshaped alliances, economies, and technologies.

• Armies require weapons, uniforms, and supplies, leading to advancements in metalworking, textile production, and logistics.

• Navies demand better ships, navigation tools, and artillery, spurring improvements in shipbuilding and engineering.

• Governments invest heavily in war industries, which, once the wars end, are repurposed for civilian manufacturing.

As nations strive to outmatch each other in military strength, they unintentionally fuel industrial progress, ensuring that production methods become more efficient, more mechanized, and more advanced.

The Role of Banking and Finance

Industry cannot grow without money, and I have seen the rise of powerful financial institutions that are funding the transition from small workshops to large-scale manufacturing.

• Joint-stock companies, which began in the age of exploration, have given rise to new forms of investment, pooling resources for industrial projects.

• Banking families in Europe, such as the Rothschilds, are creating financial systems that allow capital to flow more freely between investors and businesses.

• Government loans and economic policies are beginning to support trade, infrastructure, and industrial development, ensuring that nations can sustain long-term economic growth.

Without these financial innovations, the Industrial Revolution would remain merely an idea, rather than an economic reality.

A World on the Edge of Change

As I reflect on these events, I see that the old world—the world of feudal lands, handcraft production, and isolated economies—is beginning to give way to something new.

• Science is advancing.

• Agriculture is feeding larger populations.

• Global trade is expanding wealth and resources.

• Wars are pushing technological progress.

• Banks and investors are fueling industrial ventures.

I do not know how long it will take before these forces fully reshape Europe, but I am certain that the Industrial Age is coming.

Will it bring prosperity or hardship? Will it create new freedoms or new oppressions? Will it strengthen empires or cause their downfall?

These questions are not for me to answer, but for future rulers, future thinkers, and future workers who will live in the world that is now being forged. May Austria be prepared for the dawn of this new era.