14. Heroes and Villains of Ancient Egypt: The Late Period of Egypt

Saite Renaissance and Revival

My Name is Psamtik I: Pharaoh of Egypt

I was born into a land that had long suffered under the shadow of Assyrian dominance. Egypt’s once-proud throne had been shaken, and foreign powers dictated our fate. I grew up watching my people lose faith in themselves, their temples falling quiet, and their soldiers no longer feared across the world. I knew from a young age that Egypt must be restored, and that it would take both patience and strength to achieve it.

The Rise to Power

When the gods granted me the chance, I seized it. I rose as Pharaoh in 664 BC, carrying not only the crown of Upper and Lower Egypt but the hopes of a weary people. My first challenge was to unite Egypt again, to bring together the divided nomes, the armies, and the priesthood. Through careful alliances and determination, I secured my throne and declared Egypt free from the heavy hand of Assyria.

The Use of Foreign Mercenaries

To defend our independence, I knew we needed new tactics. I turned to Greek mercenaries, whose skill with arms impressed me. I settled them in fortified towns and integrated their strength with Egyptian traditions. Some whispered that it was dangerous to trust foreigners, but I believed in using every tool to keep Egypt safe. Their presence gave us a sharper edge in war, and their knowledge opened new doors to the wider world.

The Saite Renaissance

Once Egypt stood free, I turned to healing its spirit. I restored temples, called back the ancient traditions, and honored the gods as in the time of our ancestors. Craftsmen, artists, and scribes returned to their work, bringing back the beauty of Egypt’s golden days. This revival was not only for worship but also for pride, reminding Egyptians who they were and what they could achieve.

Trade and Prosperity

Under my reign, Egypt did not close its eyes to the world but opened them wider. We sent ships across the Mediterranean, built ties with Phoenicians, and welcomed Greek traders to the port of Naucratis. Wealth flowed into Egypt, and our farmers and artisans prospered. In trade and diplomacy, Egypt stood tall again, not as a subject of others but as a partner in the affairs of nations.

The Legacy of My Reign

When my time came to an end in 610 BC, I left Egypt stronger than I had found it. I gave my son, Necho II, not only a throne but a kingdom respected and feared once more. My reign began in darkness but ended in light, and though others would follow and struggles would return, I hope my people always remember me as the Pharaoh who restored their independence and gave them back their pride.

The Assyrian Retreat and Rise of Psamtik I – Told by Psamtik I

When I was young, Egypt lived under the shadow of the mighty Assyrian Empire. Their armies had swept across the Near East, crushing kingdoms and bending others to their will. Egypt, once the master of empires, had become a fractured land, often manipulated by foreign powers. Many thought the days of Egyptian greatness were gone forever. I watched as our temples weakened and our throne stood unstable, its power divided among rival rulers.

The Moment of Opportunity

But even the strongest empires cannot hold every land forever. The Assyrians faced unrest in their distant territories, and their grip on Egypt loosened. I saw my chance. I was the son of Necho I of Sais, and though my power was modest at first, I was determined. With the gods’ blessing and the support of allies, I began the struggle to unite Egypt and drive out foreign dominance.

Securing My Throne

My path was not easy. Rivals sought their own crowns, and Assyrian influence still lingered. I fought not just with armies but with alliances, weaving bonds between nomes, priests, and soldiers. Step by step, I gained strength until I could claim the double crown for myself in 664 BC. With my coronation, Egypt stood again under one Pharaoh, no longer a pawn of others.

The Birth of Renewal

With the Assyrians retreating and my rule secured, a new chapter opened for Egypt. I worked to restore her pride, her temples, and her armies. My reign became the beginning of what later generations would call the Saite Renaissance, a revival of Egypt’s power and glory. From the shadow of Assyria, I rose to bring Egypt back into the light.

The Saite Renaissance: Revival of Arts, Culture, and Temples – Told by Psamtik I

When I secured the throne, I knew that Egypt needed more than soldiers and walls. Centuries of turmoil had left our people uncertain, their faith shaken, and their pride diminished. To heal Egypt, I had to restore not just her strength, but her spirit. I turned my heart to the temples, the sacred places where the gods had once been honored with splendor. I ordered their repair, their walls lifted again, their carvings made new, so that the presence of the divine would once more shine upon our land.

The Return of Artists and Scribes

With peace returning, craftsmen, artists, and scribes found their place again. They picked up the tools of their ancestors, carving hieroglyphs into stone, painting scenes of gods and kings, and weaving stories of eternity. The old styles, drawn from the greatness of earlier dynasties, were reborn under my command. Yet there was also freshness in their work, a spark that showed Egypt was alive, not merely repeating the past but carrying it forward.

The Revival of Traditions

The festivals of the gods returned with vigor, their processions winding through the streets, reminding Egyptians of who they were. Priests once again filled the sacred halls, chants rose to the heavens, and offerings brought life to the temples. I knew that by honoring the old ways, I strengthened the bond between Pharaoh and people, between Egypt and the gods. This was the true foundation of my reign, for no kingdom can stand without the faith of its people.

A New Pride in Egypt

The Saite Renaissance became more than stone and ritual. It was the rebirth of pride. Farmers, merchants, and soldiers alike saw the gods watching over them and knew their land was blessed again. Egypt was not the servant of foreign empires but a nation restored to its dignity. This revival of art, culture, and temples was my gift to my people, and through it, I gave Egypt back her soul.

Military Reforms and Use of Greek Mercenaries – Told by Psamtik I

When I rose to power, Egypt was free once more, but freedom is fragile without protection. The Assyrians had shown us how easily foreign armies could sweep into our land. If Egypt was to remain independent, I needed to reshape our military, to make it stronger, faster, and more prepared for the challenges of the world beyond our borders.

Turning to Foreign Allies

Our soldiers were brave, but centuries of division had weakened our methods. I looked to the Greeks, warriors whose skill and discipline were admired across the seas. Some questioned my decision to invite foreigners into our service, fearing they might not be loyal. Yet I knew that their knowledge and weapons could give Egypt the edge we needed. I welcomed them as mercenaries, paid with Egyptian gold, but bound by duty to defend the land of the Nile.

Blending Traditions

These Greek soldiers brought new tactics, formations, and weapons. I did not replace Egypt’s army with theirs, but instead I blended the two. Egyptian archers, charioteers, and infantry fought alongside Greek hoplites, each learning from the other. In this way, I created a force that was both traditional and modern, both Egyptian and strengthened by foreign skill.

Securing Egypt’s Borders

With this reformed army, I defended our borders from threats near and far. No longer would Egypt be an easy prize for invaders. Our strength was known once more, and those who thought to challenge us were forced to think twice. By trusting in the skills of others and combining them with the spirit of my people, I gave Egypt the shield it needed to stand proudly and independently in a dangerous world.

Reassertion of Egyptian Independence – Told by Psamtik I

For too long, Egypt had bent beneath the weight of foreign powers. Assyrians and others had meddled in our affairs, placing their own will above ours. I could not accept this. When I became Pharaoh, I swore that Egypt would no longer answer to another throne. The gods had entrusted me with the double crown, and with it came the duty to restore Egypt’s rightful place as master of her own destiny.

Uniting the Two Lands

The first step toward independence was to unite my people. Rival rulers and divided nomes had weakened us, leaving Egypt vulnerable to outside control. I worked tirelessly to bring these factions together, to remind them that Egypt is strongest when Upper and Lower Egypt stand as one. With loyalty secured from priests, nobles, and generals, the throne of Egypt was no longer fractured but whole again.

Driving Out Foreign Influence

Once unity was achieved, I turned my gaze outward. The Assyrian presence still lingered, but their empire was strained. I seized the opportunity to drive them back, freeing Egyptian soil from their interference. Each victory restored the pride of my people, reminding them that the Nile was not ruled by distant kings but by a Pharaoh born of Egypt’s land and gods.

Egypt Stands Tall Again

With our independence reasserted, Egypt rose once more as a sovereign power. No longer did foreign rulers dictate our policies or take our wealth. I made treaties as an equal, not as a servant. I showed the world that Egypt was not a shadow of her former self but a kingdom restored to strength and dignity. In my reign, the chains of foreign rule were broken, and Egypt stood proudly as mistress of her own fate.

Trade Networks in the Mediterranean and Near East – Told by Psamtik I

Once Egypt had regained her independence, I knew that strength could not rest only on armies and temples. Prosperity came from the lifeblood of trade, flowing like the Nile itself. To secure Egypt’s future, I opened our gates to the wider world, forging bonds across seas and deserts. In doing so, I gave my people wealth and opportunities that made our land flourish.

Partnerships with the Greeks

The Greeks became some of our most valuable partners. I welcomed their merchants into Egypt, granting them a settlement at Naucratis. There they traded wine, olive oil, and fine pottery for Egypt’s grain, papyrus, and gold. This was more than commerce—it was a bridge between cultures. Their knowledge of the sea and their hunger for exchange made them both allies and assets to my reign.

Connections with Phoenicia and the Levant

Our ties with Phoenician traders also deepened. From their ports came fine woods, dyes, and craftsmanship, enriching our markets. In return, Egypt sent grain and goods born of the Nile. These exchanges not only filled our treasuries but also secured friendships with those who controlled vital sea routes across the Mediterranean.

The Wealth of the Nile

The strength of our trade rested on Egypt’s abundance. The Nile’s fertile soil produced grain beyond our needs, making it the foundation of our exports. Gold from Nubia, papyrus from our marshes, and linen from our fields all traveled outward, carrying Egypt’s name to distant lands. Each shipment reminded the world that Egypt was not only powerful but prosperous.

Egypt’s Place Among Nations

Through these networks, Egypt regained her rightful place as a central power in the Mediterranean and Near East. Foreign kings respected us not just for our armies but for our wealth and influence. By blending independence with open exchange, I ensured that Egypt was seen not as an isolated land but as a leader among nations, strong in both spirit and trade.

My Name is Amasis II: Pharaoh of Egypt

I was not born into the high circles of royalty. I came from humble origins, a man of the people, and my ascent to the throne surprised many. Some say the gods smiled upon me, others claim I was cunning and ambitious. Perhaps both are true. Through service in the military and by winning the trust of my soldiers, I rose above my station. In time, fate and the will of the army placed the double crown upon my head in 570 BC.

Winning the People’s Loyalty

My path to rule was not easy, for many nobles doubted me. Yet I gained strength from the hearts of the common folk. I showed them that I was not distant, that I knew their struggles and shared their joys. My laughter and wit became well known, and I earned their love not by fear but by making them believe Egypt was theirs as much as mine.

Naucratis and the Greeks

In my reign, I saw the value of foreign ties, especially with the Greeks. To strengthen our bond, I gave them Naucratis, a city where they could trade and settle. It was the first permanent Greek colony in Egypt, and it brought us riches, knowledge, and allies. Some in Egypt resisted this, fearing Greek influence, but I believed that partnership would secure both prosperity and protection.

Strengthening Egypt at Home

I did not forget Egypt’s heart while looking outward. I invested in agriculture, ensuring the Nile’s gifts fed our people and brought abundance. I built temples, repaired old shrines, and honored the gods with devotion. By restoring the ancient ways, I reminded Egyptians of their identity and the sacred bond between Pharaoh and the divine.

Guarding Against Persia

Even as we prospered, shadows lengthened to the east. Persia was rising, swallowing lands with alarming speed. I knew Egypt could not remain untouched forever. I sought alliances with other powers, including Greeks and Cypriots, to prepare for the storm I saw coming. My diplomacy was as important as my armies, for I wanted Egypt to stand strong in the face of growing threats.

The End of My Days

I ruled for forty-four years, one of the longest reigns of the Late Period. When I died in 526 BC, I left behind a kingdom that was prosperous, respected, and deeply connected to the world beyond its borders. My successor, Psamtik III, faced the Persian tide that I had long feared. I only hope my efforts gave him the strength to resist, and that my people remembered me not only as Pharaoh but as one of their own who rose to lead them.

Amasis and Greek Alliances (Naucratis as a Greek trading hub) – Told by Amasis II

When I became Pharaoh, I knew that Egypt’s strength lay not only in its temples and fields but also in the bonds we forged beyond our borders. The Greeks had long sailed across the sea, bringing with them goods, ideas, and soldiers. Some of my predecessors had relied on them for war, but I saw that they could offer Egypt something more—lasting friendship and trade that could enrich us both.

The Gift of Naucratis

To strengthen this bond, I gave the Greeks a city of their own within Egypt: Naucratis. It was not simply a trading post but a place where they could live, worship their gods, and carry on their affairs under my protection. By granting them this settlement, I secured their loyalty and made Egypt the center of their commerce in the eastern Mediterranean. Naucratis became a symbol of trust, where Greek and Egyptian interests met in harmony.

The Flow of Trade

From Naucratis came olive oil, fine pottery, and wine, goods that pleased both nobles and common folk in Egypt. In return, we sent grain, papyrus, and linen across the seas. Each ship that sailed in or out carried wealth into Egypt’s markets and tied us more closely to the powers of the Mediterranean world.

The Exchange of Cultures

But trade was not the only treasure. Ideas and customs passed between Greeks and Egyptians at Naucratis. They learned from our priests, and we learned from their scholars and craftsmen. It was a place where cultures touched without losing their identity, creating a richness that went beyond gold and silver.

Securing Egypt’s Place

By forging these alliances, I ensured that Egypt was not isolated but respected and valued by distant powers. The Greeks became not only partners but also allies, whose friendship helped shield us from greater threats. Through Naucratis, I showed that Pharaoh could rule with wisdom as well as strength, making Egypt a bridge between worlds.

Egyptian Religion and Revival of Old Traditions under Amasis – Told by Amasis II

As Pharaoh, I understood that my power rested not only on armies and wealth but on the favor of the gods. Egypt’s strength had always flowed from its temples, its rituals, and its ancient traditions. To let these fade would mean the slow death of Egypt’s soul. So I made it my sacred duty to restore and honor the old ways, ensuring that the gods walked with us in all that we did.

Restoring the Temples

I poured my energy into repairing and building temples, raising stone walls and carving sacred inscriptions. At Sais, Memphis, and other holy places, I renewed the houses of the gods so that their presence would remain strong in Egypt. Priests once more filled their sacred duties, offering prayers and sacrifices that bound the heavens and earth together.

Honoring the Festivals

I revived the great festivals that brought the people and gods together. The processions returned to the streets, carrying the sacred barques of the deities, and the air filled with music, incense, and devotion. These gatherings reminded Egyptians of our shared identity, that no matter our struggles, we were one people bound by the gods of our ancestors.

Binding People to Faith

By lifting up religion and tradition, I bound my people closer to me. Pharaoh was not merely a king but the chosen servant of the gods, the bridge between mortal and divine. My devotion reassured the people that Egypt had not strayed from its path. Together, we found comfort in the old ways while preparing for the challenges of the present.

The Legacy of Renewal

Through the revival of religion and traditions, I gave Egypt more than stability. I gave her confidence, the belief that the gods still favored our land. While foreign powers rose and threatened from afar, Egypt’s heart beat strong, nourished by the faith of her people. This renewal was not only for my reign but for the generations that followed, so they might never forget the sacred bond between Egypt and the gods.

Amasis’s Internal Policies: Economy and Agriculture – Told by Amasis II

A Pharaoh’s duty is not only to defend the borders or honor the gods but to ensure that his people thrive. I knew that without strong fields, flowing markets, and secure homes, no kingdom could endure. So I turned my attention to the daily lives of my people, building policies that would make Egypt stable, wealthy, and prosperous.

The Lifeblood of the Nile

The Nile was the heart of our economy, and I worked to make sure its gifts were used wisely. I encouraged farmers to expand their fields, ensuring that irrigation channels were maintained so that every drop of water brought life to the soil. The harvests grew plentiful, and with careful management, Egypt became not only self-sufficient but a land that produced surplus grain for trade.

Encouraging Trade and Craftsmanship

I did not neglect the cities and markets. Craftsmen and artisans received my support, for their skills brought wealth and pride to Egypt. Potters, weavers, and metalworkers flourished under my reign, filling our markets with goods that could be sold within Egypt and beyond. I encouraged trade across the Mediterranean, knowing that Egypt’s surplus could be exchanged for treasures and knowledge from distant lands.

Fairness in Governance

I sought to be a ruler who cared for both rich and poor. I placed limits on the powers of officials to prevent corruption and ensured that justice reached even the lowest farmer. By protecting the people from unfair demands, I gained their loyalty and built a kingdom that was stable from the ground up.

The Prosperity of My Reign

Through these efforts, Egypt enjoyed a time of wealth and stability. Fields were fertile, cities busy, and treasuries full. My policies did more than fill the stores—they gave Egyptians pride in their land and faith in their future. With a strong economy and secure agriculture, Egypt could stand proudly, prepared to face whatever storms might rise beyond her borders.

Foreign Policy: Egypt’s Role in the Eastern Mediterranean – Told by Amasis II

During my reign, I knew Egypt could not stand apart from the struggles of the wider world. The Eastern Mediterranean was a stage where kingdoms and empires competed for influence, and Egypt had to take its place among them. With our wealth, armies, and traditions, we could not be ignored, but neither could we risk isolation. My foreign policy was built on balance—using friendship where possible and strength where necessary.

Alliance with the Greeks

The Greeks were central to my plans. By granting them Naucratis and building bonds with their city-states, I secured allies who were skilled in trade and warfare. Their ships carried goods and soldiers, strengthening Egypt’s hand in the region. These ties gave me influence far beyond our shores, making Egypt a partner to powers that stretched from the Aegean to the Ionian seas.

Relations with Cyprus and Other States

I also reached out to Cyprus and the islands of the Mediterranean, ensuring Egypt had a voice in their affairs. These alliances were not only about war but about keeping the sea routes open, so that Egypt’s grain and goods flowed freely. By building trust with smaller states, I made sure that Persia did not have easy allies in the waters that touched our land.

Countering the Persian Threat

The greatest danger came from Persia, whose empire grew larger each year. I knew they looked toward Egypt as a prize. To protect my kingdom, I aligned myself with Greece and other states that feared Persian conquest. Together we hoped to create a barrier strong enough to halt their ambitions. Diplomacy was my shield, even as I prepared for the sword.

Egypt’s Place in the World

Through these efforts, I made Egypt a respected power in the Eastern Mediterranean. Foreign rulers treated me not as a distant Pharaoh but as a fellow player in the great struggles of the age. Egypt was no longer weakened by division or foreign rule, but active, engaged, and prepared to defend her place. My foreign policy was meant to ensure that Egypt remained strong, not only within her borders but in the eyes of the world.

The Threat of Persia on the Horizon – Told by Amasis II

In my time as Pharaoh, I watched with unease as the Persian Empire grew larger and stronger with every passing year. What began as a distant power under Cyrus the Great quickly became the most formidable force in the world. Kingdom after kingdom fell to their armies, and their dominion stretched from the mountains of the east to the shores of the Mediterranean. I knew that Egypt, rich and proud, could not escape their gaze forever.

Preparing Egypt for Danger

I did not wait idly for Persia to come. I strengthened our armies, continued to rely on Greek mercenaries, and secured alliances with states that also feared the Persians. Every decision I made in foreign policy, every coin I spent on defense, was shaped by the knowledge that one day the Persians would march toward the Nile. I wanted Egypt to be ready when that day arrived.

Alliances Against Persia

The Greeks were our most valuable partners. They, too, feared Persian expansion, for their city-states stood in the path of the empire’s hunger. By supporting them and keeping Naucratis thriving, I made sure that Egypt was tied into a greater network of resistance. I hoped that together, we could hold back the tide of conquest that threatened to wash over the Mediterranean.

A Pharaoh’s Concern

Yet despite my efforts, I felt the weight of Persia pressing closer. Their armies were vast, their kings determined, and their will unyielding. I often wondered if even my preparations would be enough. I feared for Egypt’s future, knowing that no matter how strong we stood, the storm gathering on the horizon was unlike any we had faced before.

My Final Warning

When my life drew near its end, I left my son Psamtik III to face what I had long anticipated. Though I had built alliances and strengthened Egypt’s defenses, the Persians would come, and I could not be there to stand against them. My warning to Egypt was clear: Persia would not stop until it claimed the Nile. The task of resisting them would fall to those who came after me.

My Name is Cambyses II: King of Persia and Pharaoh of Egypt

I was born the son of Cyrus the Great, the mighty founder of the Persian Empire. From my father, I inherited not only a vast dominion but also the ambition to expand it further. The world looked upon Persia with awe, for we had conquered lands stretching from the east to the borders of Egypt. It was my destiny to continue that work and prove myself worthy of the throne I inherited.

The Dream of Egypt

Egypt stood as the jewel of the Nile, proud and ancient, untouched by the Persian sword. To rule the world, I knew I must rule Egypt. Its wealth, its grain, its temples, and its position at the edge of Africa made it essential. I prepared carefully, gathering my armies, allying with Arab tribes for passage, and learning the weaknesses of the Pharaoh who stood against me.

The Battle of Pelusium

In 525 BC, I marched into Egypt. At Pelusium, near the mouth of the Nile, I faced Pharaoh Psamtik III. The Egyptians fought fiercely, but Persia’s strength was greater. Some say I used animals sacred to the Egyptians as shields, knowing their priests forbade harm to them. Whether truth or tale, the Egyptians broke, and Pelusium became their defeat. Soon after, Memphis fell, and Egypt bowed to my crown.

Pharaoh and King

I took the double crown of Egypt, adding it to the titles of Persia. Yet ruling Egypt was no easy task. The people respected their ancient gods and traditions, and I was a foreigner in their land. Some say I disrespected their temples and mocked their beliefs, but I tell you this: I did what was necessary to establish order. Rebellion had to be crushed swiftly, for an empire cannot stand if one province rises while others wait.

Revolt and Turmoil

Egypt did not submit quietly. Revolts flared, and I had to be relentless. My rule was short, only a handful of years, yet filled with struggle. Even among my own people, dissent rose. In Persia, nobles questioned my judgment, and stories of my cruelty spread. Whether exaggerated or not, such tales poisoned my legacy.

The End of My Reign

In 522 BC, my life ended suddenly. Some say I took my own life after an injury, others that the gods struck me down. With my death, Egypt’s fate hung in the balance, and revolts surged once more. Yet the Persians would not easily let go, and Egypt remained bound to the empire I had extended. Though remembered with fear more than reverence, I achieved what many before me only dreamed—I brought Egypt under Persian rule, even if for a fleeting moment in history.

The Invasion of Egypt by Cambyses II (525 BC) – Told by Cambyses II

From the moment I inherited the throne of Persia, Egypt was fixed in my mind. My father, Cyrus the Great, had forged the greatest empire the world had ever seen, but one land remained beyond our grasp. Egypt, proud and ancient, had resisted foreign kings before. To bring it under my rule would prove my worth and complete my father’s vision.

Preparing the March

I knew the Nile could not be reached by Persian strength alone. To cross the deserts, I sought the aid of the Arabian tribes, who guided my armies and supplied water for the long journey. I also gathered allies from the lands we had conquered, forming a force that stretched across nations. With soldiers from Persia, Media, and beyond, I prepared for the greatest campaign of my reign.

The Fall of Pelusium

The Egyptians stood against me at Pelusium, near the eastern gateway of the Nile. Their Pharaoh, Psamtik III, fought with courage, but my forces were stronger. Legends say I used sacred animals, beloved by the Egyptians, to shield my soldiers, knowing they would hesitate to strike. Whether myth or truth, the battle ended in Egyptian defeat. Pelusium became the door through which Persia entered Egypt.

The Capture of Memphis

After Pelusium, I advanced swiftly. The city of Memphis resisted, but its walls could not hold forever. When Memphis fell, the heart of Egypt lay in my hands. Psamtik III was captured, and with his downfall, the throne of Egypt passed to me. At last, I wore not only the crown of Persia but also the double crown of Upper and Lower Egypt.

The Beginning of Persian Rule

My conquest in 525 BC marked a new chapter in the story of the Nile. Egypt, once a land that ruled empires, now became a part of mine. Some Egyptians called me a tyrant, others a liberator. But the truth is this: I brought Egypt into the Persian world, binding its wealth and power to the empire of the Great Kings.

The Invasion of Egypt by Cambyses II (525 BC) – Told by Cambyses II

When I became King of Persia, I looked upon the map of my empire and saw one land that remained beyond my father’s grasp. Egypt, with its fertile Nile and proud traditions, stood apart as a jewel not yet claimed. To rule the world, I knew I must also rule Egypt. It was not only a conquest of land but a conquest of legacy, one that would prove I was worthy of Cyrus’s blood.

The March Across the Desert

The road to Egypt was harsh and long, stretching across deserts that could break even the strongest armies. To succeed, I made alliances with the Arabian tribes, who brought water and supplies across the burning sands. With their help, my men marched with confidence, for the desert would not claim us before the battle began.

Facing Pharaoh Psamtik III

At Pelusium, the Egyptians gathered under their Pharaoh, Psamtik III. Their soldiers fought bravely, but my army was vast, made of Persians, Medes, and allies from across the empire. The Egyptians tried to block the way, but their lines could not withstand the strength of Persia. The battle turned swiftly in my favor, and Pelusium opened the path to the Nile.

The Fall of Memphis

After Pelusium, I pressed forward to Memphis, the seat of Pharaoh’s power. The city resisted, but it was no match for the determination of my forces. When Memphis fell, the spirit of Egyptian independence broke. Psamtik III was taken captive, and with him, the throne of Egypt itself.

The Triumph of Conquest

In 525 BC, I became Pharaoh of Egypt, adding its double crown to the empire of Persia. Some would call me harsh, others cunning, but no one could deny the truth—I had brought Egypt under the rule of the Great Kings. The invasion was not just a victory of arms but a turning point in history, when the Nile bent its course to join the might of Persia.

The Battle of Pelusium and Persian Victory – Told by Cambyses II

Pelusium was the key to Egypt. Whoever controlled it could open or close the way into the Nile Delta. I knew that if I broke Pharaoh’s army there, the rest of Egypt would fall in time. So I gathered my men, Persians and allies alike, and prepared for the decisive clash. Pharaoh Psamtik III stood against me with his forces, ready to defend his kingdom, but I was determined to break his power in one stroke.

The Strength of My Army

My forces were vast and disciplined, built from many nations of the empire. Years of conquest had forged them into one. Against them, the Egyptians held courage, but their unity had long been weakened by past struggles. I marched into battle with confidence, knowing that my soldiers carried not only weapons but the weight of Persia’s destiny.

The Legend of the Sacred Animals

It is said that I used the Egyptians’ reverence for cats and other sacred animals as part of my strategy, painting their images on shields and driving them before my lines. Whether myth or truth, the effect was clear—the Egyptians faltered, unwilling to strike at what they held holy. In that moment of hesitation, my army surged forward, pressing them hard until their lines broke.

The Crushing of Pharaoh’s Army

The Egyptians could not withstand the storm. My soldiers cut through their ranks, driving them back in chaos. Thousands fell, and those who survived fled toward Memphis. Pelusium was soaked in blood, its fields a grim witness to the day Persia broke Egypt’s defenses. Pharaoh’s men had fought with bravery, but bravery alone could not stand against Persia’s might.

The Victory That Changed Egypt

With Pelusium lost, the road to Memphis lay open. The Egyptians no longer had the strength to stop me. My victory at Pelusium was not just a battle won—it was the breaking of Egypt’s shield, the moment when her fate was sealed. From that day, Egypt’s independence was finished, and her crown became mine.

Persian Administrative Reforms in Egypt – Told by Cambyses II

When Egypt fell to my armies, victory was only the first step. To hold the land was another task altogether. Egypt was proud, ancient, and steeped in traditions unlike any other. I could not simply treat it as another province of Persia. I needed to shape its governance carefully, ensuring that it bowed to my authority while still functioning under its own long-established systems.

Preserving the Old Structures

I did not destroy Egypt’s administration. Instead, I adapted it. The temples and priesthood were central to Egyptian life, and I allowed them to continue their rituals and duties. I confirmed their roles in society, though I made it clear that their loyalty must be to me, the Great King as well as Pharaoh. By respecting the framework already in place, I made my rule less foreign to the people.

The Tribute and the Treasury

I imposed tribute, as I did in other lands of the empire, but Egypt was wealthy and could bear the burden. Grain, gold, and other resources flowed into Persia’s treasuries, strengthening the empire as a whole. In return, I offered stability. My governors oversaw the land, ensuring that taxes were collected and order maintained. Egypt became a vital source of wealth for Persia, its harvests feeding armies and its riches filling the royal coffers.

Persian Officials and Local Control

I appointed satraps, my own trusted officials, to oversee the land. They held supreme authority in my name, yet many Egyptians remained in positions of lower administration. This balance ensured that the people still saw familiar faces in local offices, while ultimate control rested with me. By blending Persian oversight with Egyptian tradition, I created a structure that was both firm and adaptable.

A Lasting Impact

These reforms made Egypt part of the Persian world. It was no longer a kingdom apart but a province of the empire, linked by tribute, law, and governance to distant lands. Some Egyptians resented this, whispering that I had stolen their freedom, but others recognized that peace and order had returned after years of war. Through these changes, I bound Egypt to Persia, not just by conquest but by administration, ensuring it served the Great Kings for generations.

Impact of Persian Rule on Egyptian Religion and Society – Told by Cambyses II

When I became Pharaoh of Egypt, I stepped into a land where religion was the very fabric of daily life. The temples were not only places of worship but centers of power, wealth, and authority. I understood that to rule Egypt, I had to rule in harmony with its gods, or at least appear to do so. Yet I was a Persian, raised in different traditions, and many Egyptians saw me as an outsider who could never truly honor their way.

The Priests and the Temples

I allowed the priests to continue their rituals, for I knew to silence them would be to ignite rebellion. I confirmed their privileges and even offered gifts to certain temples. Still, whispers spread that I had mocked the sacred Apis bull or shown disrespect to holy rites. Whether true or twisted by my enemies, such tales endured, staining my name in Egyptian memory. What mattered, however, was that the temples remained functioning, and their influence was bound to my rule.

Society Under Persian Eyes

Egyptian society adjusted to life under Persian governance. Tribute was heavier, for Egypt’s wealth was vital to the empire, but order was maintained. Farmers worked the fertile fields of the Nile as they always had, artisans carved and painted, and merchants filled the markets. Life for most Egyptians did not change as much as their pride did. They lived under a foreign king, and though I carried the title of Pharaoh, many believed the gods had chosen someone else for the role.

Tension Between Cultures

Persian law and Egyptian tradition did not always blend smoothly. My satraps enforced imperial authority, and at times their judgments clashed with local customs. Egyptians grew resentful of being ruled by officials who did not share their language, gods, or heritage. Though I tried to maintain balance, mistrust ran deep, and every act of strictness was remembered as cruelty.

The Legacy of My Rule

The impact of Persian rule on Egypt was lasting. I tied the kingdom to the great empire of Persia, but I also created wounds in the Egyptian spirit. Some saw my reign as a time of stability, when temples still stood and the Nile still flowed. Others saw it as the beginning of decline, when Egypt lost its independence to a foreign crown. The truth lies in both views: Persian rule preserved Egypt’s order, but it also changed her pride, leaving scars that endured long after I was gone.

Revolts and Resistance Against Persian Domination – Told by Cambyses II

When I took Egypt, I knew the people would not accept Persian rule quietly. They were proud, heirs to a civilization that had once ruled an empire of its own. To see a foreign king on their throne was a wound to their pride, even if their temples still stood and their fields still flourished. It was only a matter of time before resistance began to rise against me.

The First Signs of Rebellion

Not long after my conquest, whispers of revolt spread through the Nile Delta and beyond. Egyptians who longed for their old independence looked to Psamtik III, even after his defeat, as a symbol of hope. Others called upon the gods, believing I had no right to carry the double crown. These movements were scattered at first, but they carried the spirit of defiance that would endure through every generation of foreign rule.

Suppressing the Unrest

I answered rebellion with the strength of Persia. My armies were swift to crush uprisings, and my governors made examples of those who defied me. Some say I was cruel, punishing rebels harshly, but I knew that weakness would invite greater danger. An empire as vast as mine could not afford leniency, for if one province rose unchecked, others would follow. Egypt had to learn that resistance would not break my authority.

The Unyielding Spirit of Egypt

Yet even as I imposed order, I saw that Egypt’s spirit could not be easily subdued. The people clung fiercely to their gods, their traditions, and their pride. Each act of resistance, however small, reminded me that while Egypt might be governed by Persia, it would never forget its own greatness. The Nile carried memories older than my empire, and those memories fueled their defiance.

The Legacy of Resistance

The revolts I faced did not end with me. They became part of Egypt’s story under Persian rule, flaring again in the reigns of my successors. My victories ensured Persia’s control, but they also deepened Egypt’s resentment. The resistance I faced showed that conquest can seize a land, but winning the hearts of its people is far harder. That was the true struggle of my rule, one that no army alone could ever truly conquer.

My Name is Nectanebo II: The Last Native Pharaoh of Egypt

I was born into a time when Egypt struggled to hold onto its freedom. Foreign powers circled like vultures, and the memory of Persian rule weighed heavily upon my people. Yet the gods chose me to wear the double crown, and in 360 BC, I rose to become Pharaoh. Little did I know I would be remembered as the last native ruler of this ancient land.

Defending Egypt’s Borders

From the moment I took the throne, I faced threats from beyond. The Persians sought to reclaim Egypt, and I knew their strength was great. I turned to skilled Greek mercenaries to bolster my armies, as those before me had done. With their help, I defeated Persian invasions and secured Egypt’s independence for a time. My victories gave hope to the people, and Egypt once more stood proudly against the empires that sought to control her.

Patron of Temples and the GodsI did not focus only on war. I poured my efforts into temples and shrines, restoring the ancient bond between Pharaoh and the gods. I built and expanded sacred places at Philae, Edfu, and Hermopolis. I wanted the gods to see Egypt’s devotion and grant us their protection. My reign became a time of spiritual renewal, even as foreign threats loomed.

The Gathering Storm

But Persia never forgot Egypt. In 343 BC, the Great King Artaxerxes III marched against me with a massive force, supported by many Greek allies. Despite my preparations, betrayal and division weakened my defense. The Persians broke through, and my army crumbled under the weight of their numbers. I fled south to Nubia, hoping to gather strength and return, but the chance never came.

The Fall of Native Rule

My defeat marked the end of Egypt’s independence. The Persians once again ruled the Nile, and though my people fought bravely, no native son would sit on the throne after me. A few decades later, Alexander of Macedon would sweep into Egypt, and the Ptolemies would reign in my place. I am remembered not for everlasting victory but for being the last to carry the legacy of my ancestors as Pharaoh of Egypt.

My Legacy

Though I lost my kingdom, I left behind temples and monuments that still stand as testimony to my reign. I hope that when future generations walk among them, they will remember that Egypt once fought fiercely to remain free, and that I, Nectanebo II, was the last to defend her crown as a son of the Nile.

The Brief Independence: Dynasties 28–30 – Told by Nectanebo II

Before my time, Egypt endured the heavy hand of Persian rule. Their kings wore the double crown, but their hearts were never bound to the Nile. Yet empires rise and fall, and even the Persians could not hold Egypt forever. In 404 BC, the chance came when Amyrtaeus of Sais rose up against them. His victory marked the birth of the 28th Dynasty and the return of native rule, a spark of independence that Egyptians had long prayed for.

The Struggles of the 28th Dynasty

Amyrtaeus ruled only briefly, but his act was powerful. He showed that Persia could be resisted and that Egypt could still stand on its own. His dynasty did not last, but it opened the way for others to claim the throne and continue the fight for Egypt’s freedom. From that moment, Egyptians knew that their land need not always be a province of foreign kings.

The Rise of the 29th and 30th Dynasties

The 29th Dynasty followed, with rulers who fought to defend Egypt against Persia’s attempts to return. They were men of war and diplomacy, knowing that alliances with Greek city-states could give us strength. By the time of the 30th Dynasty, Egypt had regained not just independence but a measure of stability. We rebuilt our temples, strengthened our armies, and reminded the world that Egypt was not finished.

A Fragile Freedom

But this independence was fragile. Persia still cast its long shadow over us, waiting for the moment to strike again. Every Pharaoh of these dynasties carried the burden of defense, knowing that the empire to the east would never forget Egypt. We won victories, but each one came at great cost, draining our strength.

The Path to My Reign

When I, Nectanebo II, took the throne, I inherited this legacy of resistance. Egypt had stood free for a generation, but the Persians had not given up. I knew I would face the greatest test yet—the final struggle to keep Egypt independent. The brief independence of the 28th to 30th Dynasties gave us pride and hope, but it also carried the weight of a fight that was not yet finished.

Nectanebo II’s Rise to Power and Defense Strategies – Told by Nectanebo II

I was not born with an easy claim to the double crown. The throne of Egypt in my time was unstable, threatened both from within by rivals and from without by Persia’s ambition. Yet through determination and the support of loyal generals, I rose to power in 360 BC. It was not the smooth passing of a crown but the result of struggle, alliances, and the will of the gods. When I claimed the throne, I knew my reign would be defined by defense.

Building Strong Defenses

The Persians had not forgotten Egypt. I understood that they would return, and so my first duty was to prepare. I strengthened our fortresses along the Nile, improved the walls of our cities, and secured garrisons where invasion might strike. The lessons of past defeats weighed heavily on me, and I swore that Egypt would not fall without the strongest resistance we could muster.

The Role of Greek Allies

Just as my predecessors had done, I turned to the Greeks for aid. Their mercenaries were skilled, their phalanxes disciplined, and their naval power unmatched in the Mediterranean. I hired them to bolster our armies, ensuring that Persia would face not only Egyptians but also seasoned soldiers from across the sea. This blend of Egyptian courage and Greek discipline gave me hope that we could hold our ground.

Strategy of the Nile

I made the Nile itself a weapon. Its branches, marshes, and canals could be used to slow invaders and weaken their strength. By controlling the waterways, I forced enemies to fight on ground that favored us. The Nile, which had always been Egypt’s lifeblood, also became her shield under my rule.

A Pharaoh Prepared for War

Every decision I made was shaped by the looming threat of Persia. My reign was not one of peace but of vigilance. I built, fortified, and trained with the knowledge that one day a great invasion would come. Egypt’s survival depended on my ability to anticipate that day and stand ready. Though the gods had placed me on the throne, it was my strategies and preparations that would decide whether Egypt remained free or fell once again under foreign rule.

Building Projects & Cultural Flourishing under Nectanebo – Told by Nectanebo II

Though much of my reign was consumed by preparing for war, I did not neglect the heart of Egypt—her temples, her gods, and her culture. As Pharaoh, it was my sacred duty to honor the divine and to leave behind monuments that proclaimed Egypt’s greatness. Even as Persia threatened from the east, I poured resources into works that would remind my people of their identity and inspire pride in their heritage.

Temples to the Gods

I built and restored temples across the land, raising new sanctuaries at Philae and Edfu, and adding to the grandeur of older sites. Each stone I laid was a prayer to the gods, asking for their favor in Egypt’s struggles. These temples became centers of faith and life, their walls covered with inscriptions that declared my devotion and celebrated Egypt’s enduring traditions.

Art and Craftsmanship

With my patronage, artists and craftsmen flourished. Sculptors carved images of gods and kings with renewed vigor, painters filled temples with vibrant scenes, and scribes inscribed prayers and records for future generations. Their work echoed the glory of earlier ages, drawing upon ancient styles while breathing new life into them. This blending of past and present became a hallmark of my time, proof that Egypt still lived strong.

The Spirit of the People

By investing in culture, I gave my people hope. In times of uncertainty, they could look upon the temples, the statues, and the festivals and remember that Egypt was blessed by the gods and led by a Pharaoh who honored them. Even when foreign powers pressed at our borders, the people found strength in their traditions and unity in their faith.

A Legacy Beyond War

Though my reign would ultimately be remembered for Egypt’s last struggle against Persia, I take pride in knowing that my building projects and cultural revival left a lasting mark. Long after the battles ended, my temples and monuments continued to stand, testifying that Egypt’s spirit could not be erased. Through these works, I gave my people not just defenses for the present, but pride and identity for the future.

The Second Persian Conquest (343 BC) – Told by Nectanebo II

For years, I had known the Persians would return. Their empire was vast, their kings relentless, and Egypt was too rich a prize to be left alone. In 343 BC, Artaxerxes III came with an army greater than any I had faced before. He was determined to reclaim Egypt for Persia, and this time he brought not only his own forces but Greek allies as well, men who once had stood with us.

The Strain of Defending Egypt

I had strengthened our defenses, built fortresses, and trained armies, but the weight of Persia’s power pressed hard. My Greek mercenaries fought bravely, yet even they wavered when faced with overwhelming numbers. Betrayal and shifting loyalties weakened us further, and I found myself struggling to hold together a defense that could not stand forever.

The Fall of the Delta

The Persians advanced through the Delta with unstoppable force. My armies resisted where they could, but one by one our positions fell. The strength of Persia’s might and the sheer size of their host broke Egypt’s shield. At Pelusium and beyond, the invaders pushed deeper, and I was forced to retreat southward, carrying what remained of my forces with me.

Flight to Nubia

In the end, I could no longer hold the Nile. I withdrew to Nubia, seeking refuge and the chance to rebuild. From there I hoped to gather strength and return, but the opportunity never came. Egypt was lost, and the double crown once again rested on the head of a Persian king.

The End of Independence

My defeat marked the end of Egypt’s freedom. No Pharaoh after me, born of Egypt’s own soil, would ever again sit upon the throne as master of a fully independent land. Though I fought with all I could, the power of Persia was too great. The Second Persian Conquest was not just the fall of my reign—it was the closing of a chapter in Egypt’s long and glorious history.

The Macedonian Conquest by Alexander the Great (332 BC) – End of the Late Period – Told by Nectanebo II

When I fled to Nubia after the Persian conquest, Egypt passed once more into the hands of foreign kings. I was the last native Pharaoh, and though I still lived, the throne no longer belonged to me or to my people. Persia ruled again, but their grip was never truly loved, and in time, their own empire began to weaken. Into this moment of decline stepped a young conqueror from the west—Alexander of Macedon.

The March of Alexander

Alexander had already crushed Persia’s armies in Asia, striking fear into the heart of their empire. By the time he turned toward Egypt in 332 BC, the Persians could no longer hold their possessions firmly. When his armies approached, Egypt did not resist as they once had against me or my forefathers. Instead, the people opened their gates, welcoming him as a liberator from Persian rule.

A Different Kind of Conqueror

Unlike the Persians, Alexander sought to honor Egyptian traditions. He traveled to Memphis, offered sacrifices to the gods, and was crowned Pharaoh. He even journeyed to the oracle of Amun at Siwa, where he was declared the son of the god. In this way, he bound himself to Egypt’s faith, winning the people’s acceptance as more than a foreign king—he became, in their eyes, chosen by the gods themselves.

The Founding of Alexandria

Alexander left behind more than conquest. At the mouth of the Nile, he founded the city that would bear his name—Alexandria. It was destined to become a center of learning, trade, and power, blending Greek and Egyptian culture in ways that would shape the centuries to come. Though I had built temples and fought for independence, his single act of founding that city changed the course of Egypt’s future forever.

The End of the Late Period

With Alexander’s arrival, the Late Period came to its close. The age of native Pharaohs had ended with me, and now Egypt entered a new era under Macedonian and later Ptolemaic rule. My people no longer looked to the sons of the Nile for leadership but to foreign kings who clothed themselves in Egyptian tradition. The conquest of 332 BC was not only the fall of Persian power but the final transformation of Egypt, ending the long struggle for independence that I had once fought to preserve.